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THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


THE 

RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


BY 

ROLAND  B.  DIXON 

PROFESSOR  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY  AT  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


ILLUSTRATED 


CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS 

NEW  YORK  • LONDON 
1923 


Copyright,  1923,  by 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


Published  March,  1923 


PREFACE 


* 8/l*j3£>  r 

B^d  Q > ' 


This  book  is  in  large  measure  an  experiment.  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  an  experiment  in  method,  a method  devised  and 
tried  out  several  years  ago  upon  the  data  relating  to  the  peoples 
of  the  Oceanic  area,  in  an  attempt  to  bring  some  sort  of  order 
out  of  the  anthropological  chaos  which  seemed  there  to  prevail. 
The  results  were  to  me  so  encouraging  that  I was  led  to  apply 
the  method  to  the  data  for  all  the  rest  of  the  world,  with  what 
success  the  following  pages  will  show.  The  book  is  also  some- 
thing of  an  experiment  in  that  I have  attempted  to  approach  the 
whole  racial  problem  de  novo ; have  concerned  myself  primarily, 
therefore,  only  with  the  actual  data,  the  raw  facts  of  physical 
measurements,  and  have  intentionally  paid  little  or  no  heed  to 
the  conclusions  of  previous  students.  Not  that  I do  not  regard 
these  with  great  respect,  but  that  I wished  to  be  wholly  unpreju- 
diced, to  have  no  thesis  to  prove,  to  take  nothing  for  granted, 
to  be  able  to  apply  to  the  whole  body  of  data  on  man’s  physical 
characteristics  one  single  method  of  analysis,  and  to  follow  the 
evidence  fearlessly  to  whatever  conclusions  it  might  logically 
lead.  The  book  is  thus  wholly  uncontroversial,  and  is  primarily 
an  exposition  of  the  results  of  the  application  to  the  existing 
body  of  data,  of  a somewhat  novel  method  of  analysis  of  racial 
types. 

I have  attempted  to  utilize  all  the  published  data,  yet  in  so 
wide  a field  and  so  extensive  a literature  it  is  inevitable  that 
some  material  has  been  overlooked.  Some  titles,  also,  I have 
been  unable  to  find  in  libraries  in  this  country,  and  attempts  to 
secure  them,  particularly  the  Slavic  ones,  have  in  most  cases 
unfortunately  proved  fruitless.  The  bibliography  given  in  the 


VI 


PREFACE 


Appendix  is  a selected  one,  and  represents  but  a fraction  of  the 
materials  consulted.  It  is,  moreover,  almost  wholly  a list  of 
sources  for  actual  data,  primarily  those  giving  individual  mea- 
surements of  crania  or  living  persons,  and  contains  few,  if  any, 
titles  of  a theoretical,  descriptive,  or  controversial  character. 
Even  with  this  restriction  the  limits  of  available  space  required 
the  elimination  of  many  of  the  less  important  titles.  For  Eu- 
rope, in  many  cases,  only  papers  published  subsequently  to  the 
bibliography  appended  to  Ripley’s  “Races  of  Europe,”  or  not 
found  therein,  have  been  given. 

For  unpublished  data  of  great  value,  which  have  with  fine 
generosity  been  placed  at  my  disposal,  I am  indebted  first  of  all 
to  Doctor  Franz  Boas,  of  Columbia  University,  without  whose 
great  store  of  materials,  placed  freely  in  my  hands,  the  chapter 
on  North  America  could  hardly  have  been  written;  and  also  to 
Doctor  Ales  Hrdlicka,  of  the  United  States  National  Museum; 
to  Doctor  Clark  Wissler,  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  New  York;  to  Professor  A.  L.  Kroeber,  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Anthropology  of  the  University  of  California;  to  my 
colleague,  Professor  E.  A.  Hooton,  of  Harvard  University;  to 
Doctor  Edward  Sapir,  of  the  Victoria  Memorial  Museum,  Ot- 
tawa; to  Sir  Francis  H.  S.  Knowles,  of  Oxford,  England;  to 
Miss  M.  Wilman,  of  the  Alexander  Macgregor  Memorial  Mu- 
seum, Kimberley,  South  Africa;  to  Mr.  Chi  Li,  of  the  Graduate 
School  of  Harvard  University;  and  to  Doctor  Nenozo  Utsuri- 
kawa,  of  Keio  University,  Tokio,  who  has  also  very  kindly  col- 
lected and  sent  to  me  much  material  published  in  Japan. 

I also  wish  to  make  special  acknowledgment  to  the  following 
publishers  and  authors  for  permission  to  reproduce  illustrations: 
The  Bureau  of  Census,  Department  of  Commerce,  Washington, 
for  Fig.  2,  Plate  XXXV.  The  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  for 
Figs,  i and  2,  Plate  XXXVI;  and  Fig.  3,  Plate  XXXVII.  The 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  for  Fig.  4,  Plate  XXXV.  The 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History  for  Fig.  3,  Plate  XXXV, 


PREFACE 


vii 

from  the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History; 
and  Fig.  3,  Plate  XXXVI,  and  Fig.  3,  Plate  XXI,  from  Memoirs 
of  the  Jesup  North  Pacific  Expedition.  The  American  An- 
thropological Association  for  Fig.  2,  Plate  XLIII.  The  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  Anthropological  Publications  for  Fig.  3, 
Plate  XLIV.  Dodd,  Mead  & Company  and  H.  H.  Johnston, 
for  Fig.  4,  Plate  XIII,  from  Liberia,  and  Fig.  4,  Plate  XII,  from 
Uganda  Protectorate.  D.  Appleton  & Company  and  W.  Z. 
Ripley  for  Fig.  2,  Plate  III,  and  Fig.  4,  Plate  II,  from  Races 
of  Europe.  D.  Appleton  & Company  and  H.  N.  Hutchinson  for 
Fig.  1,  Plate  XVIII,  Fig.  2,  Plate  XVIII,  Fig.  2,  Plate  XX,  from 
Living  Races  of  Mankind.  John  Murray,  London,  and  A.  F.  R. 
Wollaston  for  Fig.  1,  Plate  XXVII,  from  Pygmies  and  Papuans. 
Frederick  Starr  for  Fig.  1,  Plate  XIII,  and  Fig.  2,  Plate  XIII, 
from  Congo  Natives.  Hutchinson  & Company,  London,  and  Sir 
Harry  Johnston  for  Fig.  1,  Plate  XII,  and  Fig.  4,  Plate  XVIII. 
The  Journal  of  the  Royal  Anthropological  Institute  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  and  Professor  Felix  von  Luschan  for  Fig.  1, 
Plate  XXI,  and  Fig.  2,  Plate  XXI.  The  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Anthropological  Institute  and  Doctor  C.  S.  Myers  for  Fig.  3, 
Plate  XIII.  Doctor  Randall -Maciver  for  Fig.  3,  Plate  XI,  from 
Libyan  Notes.  E.  Chantre,  for  Fig.  1,  Plate  XI,  and  Fig.  2, 
Plate  XI,  from  Recherches  Anthropologiques  en  Egypte.  The 
Skrifter  Videnskabsselskabet  Christiania  for  Fig.  3,  Plate  II. 
The  Government  Press,  Madras,  and  E.  Thurston  for  Fig.  3, 
Plate  XVIII.  And  to  the  following  authors  for  permission  to 
reproduce  various  illustrations:  Doctor  Clark  Wissler,  of  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History;  Mr.  C.  C.  Willoughby, 
of  the  Peabody  Museum,  Harvard  University;  Doctor  H.  E. 
Gregory,  of  the  Bernice  Pauahi  Bishop  Museum,  Honolulu;  and 
Doctor  Gudmund  Hatt;  and  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness 
also  in  this  respect  to  the  works  of  Hyades,  Aranzadi,  Cardoso, 
Ehrenreich,  Hagen,  Koch-Griineberg,  Lehmann-Nitsche,  Martin, 
and  Neuhaus,  to  the  Revista  del  Museo  de  La  Plata,  the  Archiv 


PREFACE 


viii 

fiir  Anthropologie,  and  the  Zhurnal  and  Izviestia  of  the  Society 
of  Friends  of  Natural  History,  Anthropology,  and  Ethnology  at 
Moscow.  And  last,  but  not  least,  to  thank  most  cordially 
Messrs.  Charles  Scribner’s  Sons  for  the  great  pains  which  they 
have  taken  to  secure  the  best  possible  reproduction  of  all  these 
illustrations. 

Roland  B.  Ddcon. 

Harvard  University, 

September,  1922. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Introduction 3 

BOOK  I.  EUROPE 

Introduction 27 

I.  France  and  the  Low  Countries — 

PRANCE 46 

THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 59 

II.  The  British  Isles  and  Scandinavia — 

THE  BRITISH  ISLES 63 

SCANDINAVIA:  DENMARK,  SWEDEN,  AND  NORWAY  ...  74 

III.  The  Central  European  Highlands  and  the  Balkan  Pe- 

ninsula— 

THE  CENTRAL  EUROPEAN  HIGHLANDS  8l 

HUNGARY  AND  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA 87 

IV.  Central  and  Eastern  Europe — 

GERMANY,  CZECHOSLOVAKIA,  AND  AUSTRIA 98 

RUSSIA,  POLAND,  AND  FINLAND 113 

V.  The  Italian  and  Spanish  Peninsulas — 

Italy  139 

THE  IBERIAN  PENINSULA 151 

VI.  The  Jews  and  the  Gipsies — 

THE  JEWS 162 

THE  GIPSIES  175 

BOOK  II.  AFRICA 

Introduction 179 

I.  Northern  Africa — 

EGYPT  AND  NUBIA 192 

NORTHERN  AFRICA 1 98 

NORTHEASTERN  AFRICA 204 

ix 


X 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

II.  East  and  South  Africa 208 

III.  Central  and  West  Africa  and  the  Sudan — 

CENTRAL  AFRICA 221 

THE  SUDAN  AND  THE  GUINEA  COAST 226 

BOOK  III.  ASIA 

Introduction 241 

1.  The  Southern  Peninsulas — 

ARABIA,  PALESTINE,  SYRIA,  AND  MESOPOTAMIA  . . . .251 

INDIA 256 

FARTHER  INDIA 269 

II.  The  Eastern  Borderlands — 

CHINA 279 

MANCHURIA  AND  KOREA 285 

JAPAN 287 

III.  The  Eastern  Plateaus — 

MONGOLIA 293 

EASTERN  OR  CHINESE  TURKESTAN 298 

TIBET  -302 

IV.  The  Western  Plateaus  and  the  Caucasus — 

THE  IRANIAN  PLATEAU 306 

THE  ANATOLIAN  PLATEAU ’312 

THE  CAUCASUS 322 

V.  The  Northern  Lowlands — 

WESTERN  TURKESTAN  AND  THE  SIBERIAN  STEPPES  . . . 327 

THE  SIBERIAN  FOREST  LAND 332 

BOOK  IV.  OCEANIA 

Introduction  343 

I.  Indonesia 352 

II.  Melanesia  and  Australia — 

MELANESIA 364 

AUSTRALIA  AND  TASMANIA . . 37  2 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

III.  Polynesia  and  Micronesia — 

Polynesia 377 

MICRONESIA 388 

BOOK  V.  NORTH  AMERICA 

Introduction 393 

I.  The  Northeastern  Dolichocephals 407 

II.  The  Southwestern  Dolichocephals 415 

III.  The  Central  Brachycephals 420 

BOOK  VI.  SOUTH  AMERICA 

Introduction 445 

I.  The  Southeastern  Dolichocephals 454 

II.  The  Brazilian  Highlands  and  the  Western  Dolicho- 
cephals   459 

III.  The  Brachycephals 465 

General  Conclusions 473 

Bibliography 525 

Index 571 


ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  MAPS 


FACING  PAGE 

PLATE  I.  FRANCE 5§ 

Distribution  of  the  cephalic  index. 

PLATE  II 72 

Fig.  1.  French. 

Fig.  2.  English. 

Fig.  3.  Norwegian. 

Fig.  4.  Norwegian  (Jaederen). 

PLATE  III 1 12 

Fig.  1.  Albanian. 

Fig.  2.  South  German. 

Fig.  3.  Great  Russian. 

Fig.  4.  Finn. 

PLATE  IV 134 

Fig.  1.  Lapp. 

Fig.  2.  South  Italian. 

Fig.  3.  Portuguese. 

Fig.  4.  Basque. 

PLATE  V.  ITALY .150 

Fig.  1.  Percentage  of  dolichocephals. 

Fig.  2.  Percentage  of  brachycephals. 

PLATE  VI.  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 156 

Distribution  of  the  cephalic  index. 

PLATE  VII.  AFRICA 184 

Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types. 

PLATE  VIII.  AFRICA 184 

Percentage  distribution  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types. 

PLATE  IX.  AFRICA  184 

Percentage  distribution  of  Palse-Alpine  and  Mongoloid  types. 

PLATE  X.  AFRICA 184 

Percentage  distribution  of  Alpine  and  Ural  types. 

PLATE  XI 200 

Fig.  1.  Egyptian. 

Fig.  2.  Nubian. 

Fig.  3.  Berber. 

Fig.  4.  Somali. 

xiii 


XIV 


ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  MAPS 


FACING  PAGE 

PLATE  XII 216 

Fig.  i.  Bantu  (Andarobo). 

Fig.  2.  Hottentot. 

Fig.  3.  Bushman. 

Fig.  4.  Mbute  Pigmy. 

PLATE  XIII 228 

Fig.  1.  Congo  Negro  (Bobai). 

Fig.  2.  Congo  Negro  (Tamoa). 

Fig.  3.  Nilotic  Negro  (Dinka). 

Fig.  4.  Mandingo. 

PLATE  XIV.  ASIA 248 

Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types. 

PLATE  XV.  ASIA 248 

Percentage  distribution  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types. 

PLATE  XVI.  ASIA 248 

Percentage  distribution  of  Palae-Alpine  and  Mongoloid  types. 

PLATE  XVII.  ASIA  248 

Percentage  distribution  of  Alpine  and  Ural  types. 

PLATE  XVIII 264 

Fig.  1.  Bedouin  Arab. 

Fig.  2.  Sikh. 

Fig.  3.  Palliyan  (S.  India). 

Fig.  4.  Burmese. 

PLATE  XIX  274 

Fig.  1.  Andamanese. 

Fig.  2.  Semang. 

Fig.  3.  Sakai. 

Fig.  4.  Chinese. 

PLATE  XX 288 

Fig.  1.  Chinese  (Southern  type). 

Fig.  2.  Ainu. 

Fig.  3.  Japanese  (Caspian  type). 

Fig.  4.  Kalmuck. 

PLATE  XXI  322 

Fig.  1.  Armenian. 

Fig.  2.  Kurd. 

Fig.  3.  Koryak. 

Fig.  4.  Yakut. 

PLATE  XXII.  OCEANIA 344 

Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  MAPS  xv 

FACING  PAGE 

PLATE  XXIII.  OCEANIA 344 

Percentage  distribution  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types. 

PLATE  XXIV.  OCEANIA 344 

Percentage  distribution  of  Palae- Alpine  and  Mongoloid  types. 

PLATE  XXV.  OCEANIA 344 

Percentage  distribution  of  Alpine  and  Ural  types. 

PLATE  XXVI 358 

Fig.  1.  Menangkabau  Malay. 

Fig.  2.  Battak. 

Fig.  3.  Negrito  (Philippines). 

Fig.  4.  Igorot  (Philippines). 

PLATE  XXVII 368 

Fig.  1.  Tapiro  Pigmy  (New  Guinea). 

Fig.  2.  Melanesian  (New  Guinea). 

Fig.  3.  Melanesian  (Fiji). 

Fig.  4.  Australian. 

PLATE  XXVIII.  AUSTRALIA  374 

Fig.  i.  Percentage  distribution  of  Pro  to- Australoid  types. 

Fig.  2.  Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Negroid  types. 

PLATE  XXIX  384 

Fig.  1.  Hawaiian. 

Fig.  2.  Marquesan. 

Fig.  3.  Hawaiian. 

Fig.  4.  Gilbert  Islander. 

PLATE  XXX.  NORTH  AMERICA 400 

Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types. 

PLATE  XXXI.  NORTH  AMERICA 400 

Percentage  distribution  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types. 

PLATE  XXXll.  'NORTH  AMERICA 400 

Percentage  distribution  of  Palas-Alpine  and  Mongoloid  types. 

PLATE  XXXIII.  NORTH  AMERICA 400 

Percentage  distribution  of  Alpine  and  Ural  types. 

PLATE  XXXIV.  NORTH  AMERICA 406 

Percentage  of  dolichocephals. 

PLATE  XXXV 412 

Fig.  i.  Eskimo. 

Fig.  2.  Seneca. 

Fig.  3.  Maidu. 

Fig.  4.  Pima. 


XVI 


ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  MAPS 


PACING  PAGE 

PLATE  XXXVI 422 

Fig.  1.  Bannock. 

Fig.  2.  Apache. 

Fig.  3.  Thompson  River  (Salish). 

Fig.  4.  Blackfoot. 

PLATE  XXXVII 432 

Fig.  1.  Crow. 

Fig.  2.  Sioux. 

Fig.  3.  Chickasaw. 

Fig.  4.  Aztec. 

PLATE  XXXVIII.  SOUTH  AMERICA 448 

Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types. 

PLATE  XXXIX.  SOUTH  AMERICA 448 

Percentage  distribution  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types. 

PLATE  XL.  SOUTH  AMERICA 448 

Percentage  distribution  of  Palae-Alpine  and  Mongoloid  types. 

PLATE  XLI.  SOUTH  AMERICA 448 

Percentage  distribution  of  Alpine  and  Ural  types. 

PLATE  XLII 456 

Fig.  i.  Yaghan. 

Fig.  2.  Ona. 

Fig.  3.  Tehuelche. 

Fig.  4.  Bororo. 

PLATE  XLIII 460 

Fig.  1.  Paressi. 

Fig.  2.  Quechua. 

Fig.  3.  Huilliche. 

Fig.  4.  Caduveo  (Guaycuru). 

PLATE  XLIV 47o 

Fig.  1.  Guarani. 

Fig.  2.  Karutana  (Arawak). 

Fig.  3.  Taruma  (Arawak). 

Fig.  4.  Maku. 


THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


INTRODUCTION 

The  term  “race”  is  one  which  has  unfortunately  acquired  a 
somewhat  varied  meaning  in  our  every-day  speech.  We  refer  to 
the  Negro  or  the  Mongolian  “race”  and  in  so  doing  have  in  mind 
primarily  certain  general  physical  characteristics  of  color,  hair, 
and  features,  while  linguistic,  cultural,  historical,  and  political 
factors  play  but  a comparatively  subordinate  part  in  our  con- 
ception. We  also  speak,  however,  of  the  Latin,  the  Anglo-Saxon, 
or  the  Celtic  “race,”  but  here,  although  physical  characteristics 
are  in  some  measure  concerned,  it  is  more  on  language  and  cul- 
ture, and  in  considerable  degree  on  historical  and  political  unity 
that  our  mental  picture  rests.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  an- 
thropologist this  latter  use  of  the  word  “race”  is  inadmissible, 
for  to  him  a race  is  a biological  group,  based  on  community  of 
physical  characters.  For  groups  characterized  on  the  one  hand 
by  linguistic,  or  on  the  other  hand  by  cultural,  historical,  or  po- 
litical unity,  he  employs  the  terms  “stock”  and  “nation.” 

A race,  then,  is  a group  defined  and  characterized  by  certain 
physical  characteristics,  and  the  problem  before  us  is  to  deter- 
mine how  many  such  groups  are  to  be  recognized  in  mankind; 
how  they  are  distributed  and  by  what  routes  they  have  spread 
over  the  surface  of  the  earth;  how  they  have  interacted  upon 
each  other;  and  what  and  where  and  when  was  their  probable 
origin. 

At  the  very  outset  we  must  recognize  that  the  problem  is  one 
of  great  complexity.  Whatever  be  our  conclusions  as  to  the 
number  and  character  of  the  fundamental  races,  we  can  hardly 
expect  to  find  these  widely  spread  in  their  original  form  to-day. 
Man  has  existed,  as  we  know,  for  tens  of  thousands  of  years, 

3 


4 


THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


and  during  this  time  by  migration  and  conquest  the  original 
racial  factors,  whatever  they  were,  have  been  so  interwoven  and 
blended  that  the  vast  majority  of  all  living  men  must  have  a 
complex  racial  ancestry,  and  such  a thing  as  a pure  race  can 
hardly  be  expected  to  exist.  However  distinct,  therefore,  races 
may  once  have  been,  the  peoples  of  the  world  to-day  are  com- 
plex mixtures  of  these  original  types,  in  which  we  must  seek  to 
discover,  if  we  can,  the  constituent  elements. 

Since  our  conception  of  race  is  based  on  purely  physical 
grounds,  we  may  first  inquire  what  are  the  criteria  upon  which 
such  a characterization  must  rest.  The  criteria  of  race  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups:  (i)  external  or  superficial,  and  (2)  in- 
ternal, structural,  or  skeletal.  The  former  includes  such  factors 
as  pigmentation  (skin,  eye,  and  hair  color),  the  character  of  the 
hair  (straight,  curly,  frizzly,  woolly),  the  character  of  the  nose 
(aquiline,  depressed,  etc.)  and  eye,  etc.,  and  are  obtained  pri- 
marily as  the  result  of  observation.  The  latter  involves  the 
form  and  size  of  different  parts  of  the  bony  skeleton,  and  is  de- 
rived in  the  main  from  direct  measurement.  Criteria  of  the 
first  class  are  simple  and  obvious,  and  were  thus  the  first  to  be 
used  in  differentiating  and  classifying  peoples.  They  are  open, 
however,  to  serious  objections.  In  the  first  place,  they  can  be 
used  only  in  connection  with  living  men,  and  are  useless  for  the 
study  of  the  skeletal  remains  of  ancient  peoples.  In  the  second 
place,  although  it  is  easy  enough  to  distinguish  a black  skin 
from  a white  one,  or  a light  eye  from  a dark  one,  or  straight  hair 
from  woolly,  or  an  aquiline  from  a snub  nose,  in  practice  it  has 
been  found  extremely  difficult  to  determine  with  real  accuracy 
the  great  number  of  intermediate  shades,  or  forms.  Thus,  while 
these  purely  observational  or  external  criteria  are  of  great  value 
in  distinguishing  between  different  groups  of  men,  their  use  is 
surrounded  by  many  practical  difficulties,  and  is  restricted  by 
serious  limitations. 

Criteria  depending  on  measurements  either  of  the  skeleton  or 
the  living  subject  are  obvious  enough  in  some  instances,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  case  of  stature.  But  the  large  majority  are  not 


INTRODUCTION 


5 


obvious  and  have  been  devised  intentionally  in  the  search  for 
some  series  of  measurements  or  ratios  between  measurements, 
which  should  prove  to  be  valid  in  distinguishing  one  group  of 
people  or  one  race  from  another.  Out  of  the  very  large  number 
of  measurements  and  ratios  which  have  been  tried  and  advo- 
cated at  one  time  or  another,  a relatively  small  number  have 
come  to  be  accepted  as  undoubtedly  of  real  significance  in  the 
determination  and  classification  of  races.  Apart  from  stature, 
these  are  mainly  confined  to  the  skull  or  head.  The  most  widely 
used,  and  commonly  regarded  as  most  important  single  criterion 
of  this  sort,  is  the  cranial  or  cephalic  index,  which  expresses  the 
ratio  of  the  breadth  to  the  length  of  the  skull  or  head.  Other 
indices  regarded  as  of  undoubted  value  are  the  altitudinal  or 
length-height  index,  and  the  breadth-height  index  of  the  skull, 
which  express  the  ratios  of  height  to  length  and  height  to  breadth 
respectively.  The  facial,  nasal,  orbital,  and  palatal  indices  are 
also  of  proved  importance,  and  show  the  ratios  between  the 
breadth  and  length  of  the  face,  the  nose,  the  eye-sockets,  and 
the  palate.  To  these  may  be  added  the  capacity  or  volume  of 
the  brain-cavity,  and  a number  of  others. 

Now  criteria  of  this  sort,  based  on  measurements,  have  the 
advantage  that  some  at  least  of  them  may  be  made  on  the  skele- 
ton and  the  living  subject  as  well,  so  that  modern  peoples  may 
be  compared  with  those  of  the  past.  Being  purely  metrical  in 
character,  they  are  less  subj'ect  to  the  uncertainties  which  beset 
observational  criteria,  although  differences  in  technic  on  the 
part  of  different  investigators  may  lead  to  slight  variations  in 
the  results. 

The  earlier  as  well  as  many  of  the  later  attempts  at  a classifi- 
cation of  mankind  into  races  were  based  primarily  upon  external 
or  observational  criteria,  the  color  of  the  skin  and  the  character 
of  the  hair  being  the  two  factors  most  generally  employed.  Such 
a classification,  for  instance,  is  the  familiar  one  into  five  races — 
the  black,  the  brown,  the  red,  the  yellow,  and  the  white.  It  was 
early  found,  however,  that  no  single  criterion  was  adequate,  for 
the  conditions  were  too  complex.  Some  combination  of  criteria 


6 


THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


was  therefore  necessary  in  order  to  devise  a valid  scheme.  In 
these,  structural  or  metrical  criteria  were  often  used,  but  gener- 
ally only  to  form  subdivisions  of  primary  races  based  upon  pig- 
mentation or  hair  form. 

The  different  investigators  who  have  concerned  themselves 
with  the  question  have  reached  widely  varying  results.  Some, 
seeking  to  simplify  the  problem,  have  divided  mankind  into  a 
small  number  of  races  marked  by  few  and  broad  similarities,  and 
have  ignored  the  great  variations  in  other  details  which  prevail 
within  their  groups.  Others  have  been  more  impressed  by  this 
variety,  have  felt  the  differences  to  be  of  real  significance, 
and  have  thus  been  led  to  construct  schemes  involving  twenty 
or  thirty  or  even  more  distinct  races  and  sub-races.  In  spite, 
however,  of  all  the  labor  and  ingenuity  expended  upon  the  ques- 
tion, anthropologists  are  not  yet  in  complete  accord  on  many 
fundamental  points.  Thus,  some  regard  all  the  aboriginal  peo- 
ples of  America  as  forming  but  a single  race,  and  consider  the 
wide  variety  which  undoubtedly  exists  as  due  to  variation  around 
a normal  type.  Others  believe  the  New  World  peoples  to  be- 
long to  two  or  more  distinct  racial  groups.  For  some  the  popu- 
lation of  Europe  is  made  up  of  the  representatives  of  three  races 
only — the  Nordic,  the  Alpine,  and  the  Mediterranean;  for  others 
a larger  number  of  racial  types  are  present. 

Moreover,  apart  from  these  wide  divergencies  in  their  re- 
sults, there  is,  I believe,  an  unsatisfactory  feature  in  all  these 
schemes,  in  that  great  reliance  is  placed  upon  the  use  of  aver- 
ages and  the  data  are  therefore  not  treated  on  the  basis  of  the 
actual  combination  in  the  individual  of  the  several  criteria  upon 
which  the  classification  is  based.  For  instance,  a series  of  skulls 
is  measured  and  the  average  or  mean  or  mode  of  the  cranial 
index,  the  facial,  nasal,  orbital,  and  palatal  indices,  etc.,  calcu- 
lated, and  the  people  represented  by  the  crania  are  then  said  to 
present  the  characters  of  these  averages— they  are,  we  will  say, 
mesocephalic  (medium-skulled),  euryprosopic  (wide  or  low- 
faced), mesorrhine  (medium-nosed),  etc.,  etc.  Now  it  may  well 
be  that  if  the  actual  combinations  of  head,  face,  nose,  orbit,  and 


INTRODUCTION 


7 


palate  forms  in  the  individual  skulls  are  examined,  hardly  a sin- 
gle skull  will  show  the  association  of  characters  stated  on  the 
basis  of  averages  to  be  typical  of  the  group.  A large  proportion 
of  the  whole  series  may  consist  of  individuals  who  are  brachy- 
cephalic  (round-headed),  euryprosopic  (wide-faced),  platyrrhine 
(broad-nosed),  etc.,  etc.,  while  an  almost  equally  large  number 
may  be  dolichocephalic  (long-headed),  mesoprosopic  (medium- 
faced), leptorrhine  (narrow-nosed),  etc.,  etc.,  with  minorities 
showing  other  combinations  of  the  several  characters.  All  such 
contrasts  are  blurred  or  concealed  when  the  measurements  are 
averaged,  and  so  the  series  of  crania  may  in  reality  be  in  no  sense 
uniform,  but  made  up  of  several  clear-cut  and  radically  different 
groups,  each  marked  by  its  own  specific  combination  of  charac- 
ters. Only,  I believe,  by  thus  taking  into  account  the  actual 
combinations  of  characters  in  the  individual,  can  we  reach  a cor- 
rect understanding  of  the  true  nature  and  relationships  of  any 
people. 

It  is  extremely  probable  that  the  real  criteria  of  race  are 
rather  complex,  and  that  various  external  features  of  pigmenta- 
tion, hair-form,  etc.,  together  with  many  structural  and  metrical 
factors,  are  involved.  But  we  are  still  in  this  matter  groping 
more  or  less  in  the  dark,  since  we  do  not  yet  know  with  cer- 
tainty whether  there  is  any  real  correlation  between  the  various 
criteria  employed.  We  are  not  certain,  for  example,  how  far  the 
form  of  the  skull  is  necessarily  associated  with  the  form  of  the 
nose,  or  the  stature  or  the  skin  color.  It  seems  logical  to  assume 
that  a broad  or  round  skull  and  a broad  face  should  go  together, 
and  that  the  breadth  of  one  should  vary  concomitantly  with 
that  of  the  other.  Yet  in  view  of  the  fact  that  disharmonic 
forms  are  far  from  uncommon,  in  which  a broad  head  is  asso- 
ciated with  a narrow  face,  or  a narrow  head  with  a broad  face, 
it  is  possible  that  after  all  there  is  no  necessary  correlation  be- 
tween these  two  criteria,  and  that  they,  as  well  as  all  the  others, 
may  vary  quite  independently.  In  other  words,  we  cannot  point 
to  any  group  of  criteria  and  say  that  these  are  inherently  con- 
nected and  form  a true  racial  standard. 


8 


THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


The  present  status  of  the  whole  question  of  race  is,  therefore, 
somewhat  confused  and  uncertain.  For  not  only  is  there  wide 
divergence  of  opinion  between  different  investigators  in  regard 
to  the  number,  distribution,  and  origin  of  races,  owing  to  the 
varying  criteria  which  each  adopts,  but  a certain  hesitancy  to 
face  the  larger  problems  boldly  and  without  prejudice  is  apparent. 
The  horizon  has  often  been  limited  to  a particular  geographic 
field,  and  the  student  has  been  loath  to  view  the  local  problem 
as  a part  of  a much  larger  whole.  The  use  of  a multitude  of 
criteria  has  in  many  ways  complicated  the  question,  and  we  are 
in  danger  of  failing  to  see  the  forest  for  the  trees. 

There  is  need  thus,  I believe,  of  some  radical  simplification  of 
criteria  and  of  some  method  of  approach  which  promises  more 
definite  results.  Our  whole  attitude  toward  the  problem  ought, 
moreover,  to  include  a frank  acceptance  of  demonstrable  rela- 
tionships wherever  they  may  be  found,  and  a greater  willingness 
to  follow  the  evidence  to  whatever  conclusions  it  may  lead.  Fi- 
nally, the  historical  aspect  of  the  question  must  be  given  greater 
weight,  for  no  matter  what  the  ultimate  decision  may  be  as  to 
the  number  and  characteristics  of  the  different  races,  we  can 
hardly  suppose  these  to  have  all  originated  at  once.  Some  races 
must  be  older,  some  more  recent,  and  the  spread  of  mankind 
over  the  world  must  have  been  by  waves  of  varying  racial  com- 
position, the  later  overlying  the  earlier,  in  part  amalgamating 
with  them  and  in  part,  as  is  the  case  in  the  rest  of  the  animal 
world,  driving  their  remnants  into  marginal  or  refuge  areas. 

In  this  belief,  therefore,  the  present  attempt  at  a new  analy- 
sis of  the  peoples  of  the  world  into  their  constituent  racial  ele- 
ments has  been  made.  Since,  as  we  have  pointed  out,  we  have 
as  yet  no  absolute  standards  of  race,  against  which  we  may 
measure  peoples  to  determine  their  true  racial  character  and 
affiliations,  we  can  only  set  up  arbitrary  standards,  and,  using 
these  as  our  measure,  determine  the  character  and  relationships 
of  people  in  terms  of  our  arbitrarily  selected  units.  We  have  no 
a priori  right,  to  be  sure,  to  call  these  units  “races,”  but  we  may 
by  this  method  divide  mankind  into  a series  of  groups  or  types 


INTRODUCTION 


9 


which  possess  the  great  advantage  of  definiteness,  and  by  direct 
comparison  between  these  we  may  discover  relationships  which 
otherwise  would  remain  obscure.  And  if,  in  the  selection  of 
criteria  for  our  standards,  we  employ  only  those  which  on  the 
basis  of  existing  knowledge  give  promise  of  being  really  signifi- 
cant of  race,  we  may  hope  that  the  results  may  give  us  at  least 
an  approximation  to  the  truth. 

What  criteria  shall  we  select?  They  must,  in  order  to  be 
applicable  to  both  living  individuals  and  skeletal  material,  be 
internal  or  structural.  There  are,  however,  but  very  few  mea- 
surements ordinarily  made  on  the  latter  that  can  be  exactly 
duplicated  on  the  former,  so  that  in  the  main  we  are  limited  to 
criteria  based  on  analogous  and  comparable  measurements.  Fur- 
ther restrictions  are  imposed  by  practicable  availability,  since 
certain  measurements  now  recognized  as  of  much  value  are  not 
given  by  investigators  of  a generation  or  two  ago,  upon  whose 
data  we  must  in  many  cases  depend.  After  much  trial  and  ex- 
periment, three  criteria  have  been  selected  as  being,  all  things 
considered,  the  best — the  cranial  or  cephalic  index,  the  altitudi- 
nal or  length-height  index,  and  the  nasal  index.  The  use  of 
more  than  three  factors  seemed  unwise,  as  the  number  of  possi- 
ble combinations  of  the  type  to  be  noted  presently  would  be  so 
large  as  to  be  unwieldy  when  applied  to  the  ordinarily  available 
series  of  measurements,  which  rarely  include  as  many  as  a hun- 
dred crania  or  individuals. 

The  three  indices  selected  vary  in  their  applicability.  The 
first  can  be  satisfactorily  used  both  for  crania  and  living  persons. 
The  nasal  indices  on  the  living  and  on  the  skull,  although  not  ex- 
actly correlated,  are  nevertheless  analogous  and  probably  com- 
parable, at  least  in  their  extremes,  i.  e.,  a broad  or  narrow  nose 
on  the  living  is  probably  equivalent  to  a broad  or  narrow  nose 
on  the  skull,  although  a medium  form  cannot  be  thus  correlated. 
The  cranial  length-height  index  cannot  be  directly  compared 
with  that  taken  on  the  living,  since  the  height  is  measured  on 
the  skull  from  a point  at  its  base  which  is  not  accessible  in  the 
living,  for  whom  the  height  is  the  so-called  auricular  height,  mea- 


10 


THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


sured  from  the  ear  orifice.  As  in  the  case  of  the  nasal  index, 
however,  it  is  probable  that  at  least  in  their  extremes  the  indices 
on  the  living  and  on  the  skull  are  comparable.1 

The  indices,  as  already  stated,  express  ratios,  and  are  given 
in  the  form  of  percentages,  so  that  a cephalic  or  cranial  index, 
let  us  say  of  74,  means  that  the  breadth  of  this  particular  head 
or  skull  is  74  per  cent  of  its  length;  a nasal  index  of  47  means 
that  the  width  of  the  nose  is  47  per  cent  of  its  length,  etc.,  etc. 
For  convenience  each  of  these  indices  is  customarily  subdivided 
into  three  divisions.  In  the  case  of  the  cranial  index  all  skulls 
with  indices  lying  below  75  are  classed  as  Dolichocephalic  or 
long-headed;  those  whose  indices  lie  between  75  and  80  are  called 
Mesocephalic  or  medium-headed;  while  those  for  which  the 
index  is  80  or  over  are  classed  as  Br  achy  cephalic  or  round- 
headed.  For  the  altitudinal  index  we  have  three  similar  sub- 
divisions: Chamgecephalic,  or  low-skulled,  when  the  index  is  be- 
low 70;  Orthocephalic  when  it  falls  between  70  and  75;  and 
Hypsicephalic,  or  high-skulled,  if  the  index  is  above  the  latter 
figure.  For  the  nose  the  three  groups  are:  Leptorrhine,  or  nar- 
row-nosed, for  indices  below  47,  Mesorrhine  for  those  between 
47  and  51,  and  Platyrrhine,  or  broad-nosed,  including  all  above 
the  latter  figure.2 

Now  the  cranial,  altitudinal,  and  nasal  indices  of  any  skull 
must  lie  in  one  or  the  other  of  the  three  subdivisions  into  wdiich 
each  index  is  divided;  thus  it  may  be  Brachycephalic,  Ortho- 
cephalic, and  Platyrrhine,  or  Dolichocephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  and 
Leptorrhine,  or  Mesocephalic,  Chamaecephalic,  and  Mesorrhine, 
etc.,  etc.  The  total  number  of  different  combinations  of  these 
factors  is  3 X 3 X 3,  or  27,  and  into  some  one  or  other  of  these 
twenty-seven  groups  every  skull  or  head  must  fall. 

On  this  basis,  then,  we  may  analyze  any  series  of  living  or 
cranial  measurements,  and  discover  its  composition  so  far  as 

1 The  auricular  height  can  of  course  be  measured  on  the  skull,  and  a more  certainly 
comparable  index  thus  obtained.  Unfortunately  this  measurement  is  not  giver,  in 
many  of  the  older  publications. 

2 For  the  indices  derived  from  measurements  on  the  living  somewhat  different 
divisions  are  made  in  all  these  cases. 


INTRODUCTION 


11 


these  groups  or  units  are  concerned.  Thus,  in  a given  series  of 
crania  there  may  be  a certain  number  which  are  all  Brachy- 
cephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  and  Leptorrhine;  others  which  are  Meso- 
cephalic,  Orthocephalic,  and  Platyrrhine;  others  again  which  are 
Dolichocephalic,  Chamaecephalic,  and  Mesorrhine,  etc.,  etc.  One 
series  may  show  great  uniformity,  in  that  the  large  majority  will 
fall  into  one  or  two  of  the  twenty-seven  possible  groups;  another 
series,  on  the  other  hand,  may  show  a striking  diversity  of  com- 
position, in  that  ten  or  fifteen  or  more  of  the  groups  may  be  rep- 
resented. Concrete  examples  will  make  this  plain.  A series  of 
crania  from  Northwest  Greenland  proves  on  analysis  to  be  made 
up  as  follows: 


Dolichocephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Leptorrhine 23  = 60.5% 

Dolichocephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  Leptorrhine 7 = 18.6% 

Dolichocephalic,  Chamsecephalic,  Leptorrhine 3=  7 -9% 

Dolichocephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Mesorrhine 2=  5.2% 

Mesocephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Leptorrhine 2=  5.2% 

Dolichocephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  Mesorrhine 1—  2.6% 


38  100.0% 

Here  over  60  per  cent  of  all  the  crania  fall  into  one  group, 
with  nearly  20  per  cent  in  another,  so  that  these  two  groups  to- 
gether account  for  practically  80  per  cent  of  the  total.  The 
series  is  thus  strikingly  uniform. 

Contrast  with  this  a series  of  100  from  Northern  Italy: 


Br  achy  cephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Leptorrhine 25 

Brachycephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Mesorrhine 11 

Br  achy  cephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  Leptorrhine 10 

Brachycephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Platyrrhine 7 

Brachycephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  Mesorrhine 6 

Brachycephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  Platyrrhine 5 

Mesocephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Mesorrhine 5 

Brachycephalic,  Chamaecephalic,  Leptorrhine 4 

Mesocephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Leptorrhine 4 

Mesocephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Platyrrhine 4 

Dolichocephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Leptorrhine 4 

Mesocephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  Mesorrhine 3 

Mesocephalic,  Chamaecephalic,  Leptorrhine 3 

Mesocephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  Leptorrhine 3 


12 


THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


Mesocephalic,  Chamaecephalic,  Platyrrhine 2 

Brachycephalic,  Chamaecephalic,  Mesorrhine 1 

Brachycephalic,  Chamaecephalic,  Platyrrhine 1 

Dolichocephalic,  Chamaecephalic,  Platyrrhine 1 

Dolichocephalic,  Chamaecephalic,  Leptorrhine 1 


100 

In  this  case  more  than  three  times  as  many  groups  are  found, 
the  majority  of  which  comprise  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  total 
number  of  crania.  Such  a series  is  obviously  extremely  mixed. 
An  analysis  of  this  sort  thus  enables  us  to  determine  not  only 
the  actual  composition  of  the  series  in  terms  of  our  units,  but 
also  to  form  an  opinion  as  to  the  uniformity  or  variability  of  it. 

Comparison  on  this  basis,  furthermore,  quite  obviously  en- 
ables us  to  determine  the  degree  of  similarity  between  two  series. 
Thus  the  two  just  given  have  almost  nothing  in  common,  since 
the  groups  which  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  Eskimo  series  form 
only  8 per  cent  of  the  Italian.  If,  however,  we  compare  with 
the  Eskimo  series  one  from  the  Alikaluf,  living  about  the  west- 
ern end  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  we  find  a different  result. 
The  Alikaluf  series  is  as  follows : 1 


Dolichocephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  Leptorrhine 42.8% 

Mesocephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  Leptorrhine 35  -7% 

Dolichocephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  Mesorrhine 7.1% 

Dolichocephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Mesorrhine 7.1% 

Mesocephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Mesorrhine 7.1% 


In  this  case  a strong  relationship  between  the  two  is  apparent 
in  that  almost  60  per  cent  of  the  Alikaluf  series  is  made  up  of 
crania  having  the  same  combinations  of  indices  selected  as  cri- 
teria, as  are  found  in  the  case  of  the  Eskimo. 

In  dealing  with  measurements  on  the  living  the  procedure  is 
the  same,  only  as  the  measurement  of  the  auricular  height  is 
often  omitted  by  the  observer  because  of  its  difficulty  and  un- 
certainty, we  are  frequently  reduced  to  the  two  criteria  of  the 

1 The  percentages  given  in  this  and  the  following  tables  are  only  approximate, 
being  carried  only  to  the  first  decimal  place. 


INTRODUCTION 


13 


cephalic  and  nasal  indices  only,  giving  us  nine  instead  of  twenty- 
seven  groups.  It  follows  that  in  comparing  living  series  we  can- 
not be  as  certain  of  real  similarities,  since,  although  two  series 
may  each  be  marked  by  a large  proportion  of  individuals  belong- 
ing, let  us  say,  to  the  Brachycephalic-Leptorrhine  group,  we  can- 
not be  sure  but  what  those  in  one  series  may  have  predominantly 
high  skulls,  while  those  in  the  other  may  be  low,  and  the  two 
Brachycephalic-Leptorrhine  groups  thus  not  be  really  compara- 
ble. Conclusions  based,  therefore,  upon  measurements  of  the 
living  only,  must  be  regarded  as  tentative  in  comparison  with 
those  based  on  crania,  but  as  sufficing,  nevertheless,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  cranial  material  to  indicate  the  broader  outlines  of  the 
problem. 

Reference  should  be  made  at  this  point  to  two  difficulties 
which  inevitably  beset  almost  any  comprehensive  investigation 
of  the  physical  characteristics  of  different  peoples:  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  the  existing  data  and  the  fact  that  even  those  which  we 
possess  are  not  in  all  cases  strictly  comparable.  The  lack  of  data 
is  of  two  sorts,  absolute  and  relative.  For  many  of  the  peoples 
of  the  world,  and  for  most  peoples  in  their  early  history,  we  have 
no  accurate  or  satisfactory  measurements  whatever.  Of  others 
our  knowledge  is  extremely  meagre,  in  that  the  total  number  of 
crania  or  individuals  measured  may  amount  perhaps  only  to  a 
half  a dozen.  So  small  a number  of  cases  is  quite  inadequate  to 
serve  as  a reliable  sample  on  any  scheme  of  classification.  The 
minimum  number  which  can  be  regarded  as  satisfactory  is  fifty, 
and  conclusions  based  on  less  than  a hundred  must  always  be 
accepted  with  reserve.  Yet  it  is  but  rarely  that  such  extensive 
series  are  available,  and  we  are  forced  to  depend  upon  what  is 
to  be  had.  As  we  go  back  to  the  earlier  periods  of  human  his- 
tory, this  inadequacy  of  our  data  is  very  pronounced,  so  that 
when  we  come  to  the  Palaeolithic  period  the  number  of  reason- 
ably complete  crania  available  is  extremely  small.  Precious  be- 
yond words  as  these  remains  of  very  early  man  are,  we  must  not 
forget  that  conclusions  drawn  from  such  very  meagre  data  are 
necessarily  only  tentative. 


14 


THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


The  second  difficulty  which  tends  to  make  the  results  of  com- 
parisons, on  this  or  any  other  method,  to  some  extent  uncertain, 
is  due  to  the  differences  in  technic  on  the  part  of  different  ob- 
servers. Slightly  different  methods  of  making  almost  every  mea- 
surement have  been  employed  in  different  countries  and  at  dif- 
ferent times,  with  the  result  that  measurements  made,  let  us 
say,  by  a French  anthropologist  fifty  years  ago  are  not  exactly 
comparable  with  those  made  by  a British  or  German  investigator 
of  to-day.  In  recent  years  a practical  uniformity  of  method  has 
been  attained,  although  something  yet  remains  to  be  done  in 
this  direction,  and  modern  data  are  therefore,  as  a rule,  exactly 
comparable.  Since,  however,  we  are  obliged,  in  the  case  of 
many  peoples,  to  rely  on  data  gathered  and  published  a genera- 
tion or  two  ago,  such  materials  can  be  compared  with  more 
recent  data  only  with  care,  and  conclusions  held  subject  to 
reservation. 

A third  difficulty,  of  much  less  importance  however,  may 
also  be  referred  to,  i.  e.,  the  uncertainty  of  the  identification  of 
crania  according  to  sex.  Male  and  female  crania  from  the  same 
people  usually  present  considerable  differences  in  absolute  mea- 
surements, those  of  the  female  being  generally  the  smaller. 
There  are  also  often  notable  differences  in  proportions,  the  cra- 
nial index,  for  example,  being  commonly  higher  in  the  female 
than  in  the  male,  although  not  always  so.  While  identification 
of  the  sex  of  a skull  is  in  most  cases  easy,  there  are  always  some 
which  are  more  or  less  doubtful,  and  in  the  case  of  some  peoples 
the  identification  is  very  difficult.  A slight  uncertainty  thus 
may  be  involved,  owing  to  the  inclusion  of  what  are  in  reality 
female  crania  with  a male  series.  In  the.  present  study,  unless 
otherwise  expressly  stated,  conclusions  are  based  on  crania 
classed  as  male. 

It  will  be  well  before  we  go  farther  to  sum  up  at  this  point 
the  general  argument.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  usual  criteria 
for  the  determination  of  racial  types  are,  so  far  as  they  relate 
to  external  factors,  unsatisfactory,  in  that  they  are  inapplicable 
to  skeletal  data;  and  that  for  any  comprehensive  study  of  racial 


INTRODUCTION 


15 


problems  which  must  involve  historical  considerations  we  must 
rely  upon  skeletal,  primarily  cranial  characteristics.  From  the 
relatively  small  number  of  such  criteria  generally  recognized  as 
probably  of  racial  significance,  which  are  also  analogous  for 
crania  and  for  living  persons,  and  which  are  furthermore  gener- 
ally available,  three  were  selected.  These  three  indices  being 
divided,  according  to  general  usage,  into  three  subdivisions  each, 
we  obtain  a total  of  twenty-seven  possible  combinations  of  these, 
which  then  may  be  used  as  a basis  for  the  analysis  of  any  people. 
This  analysis  enables  us  to  determine  the  composition  of  the 
people,  in  terms  of  our  twenty-seven  factors,  and  their  uniformity 
or  diversity  and  relationship  to  other  peoples,  on  this  same  basis. 

But  what  are  these  factors  or  groups,  characterized  each  by 
a different  combination  of  the  subdivisions  of  our  three  criteria, 
and  whose  relative  proportions  among  different  peoples  we  are 
enabled  to  determine  ? Have  we  any  right  on  a priori  grounds 
to  regard  these  arbitrary  combinations  as  “races”?  Certainly 
not!  Although  since  current  conceptions  and  classifications  of 
races  make  large  use  of  these  three  criteria  and  their  subdivi- 
sions, we  might  anticipate  that  some  of  the  groups  might  coin- 
cide with  recognized  racial  types.  Investigation  along  these 
lines  at  once  reveals  the  fact  that  one  particular  kind  of  group 
does  thus  approximately  correspond  to  certain  generally  ac- 
cepted races.  Thus  the  Negro  race  is  usually  characterized  as 
being  Dolichocephalic,  Hypsi-  or  Orthocephalic,  and  Platyrrhine; 
the  Australoid  is  Dolichocephalic,  Chamae-  or  Orthocephalic,  and 
Platyrrhine;  the  Alpine  is,  on  the  average,  Brachy cephalic,  Hyp- 
sicephalic,  and  Leptorrhine;  the  purer  examples  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean are  Dolichocephalic,  Chamae-  or  Orthocephalic,  and  Lep- 
torrhine. Stated  in  general  terms  this  would  seem  to  imply 
that  many  of  the  generally  accepted  races,  as  now  understood, 
tend  to  be  characterized  by  such  combinations  of  our  three 
selected  indices  as  exhibit  these  in  their  extreme  forms,  i.  e., 
they  are  groups  which  do  not  comprise  any  of  the  medial  factors 
(Mesocephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Mesorrhine).  This  suggests  the 
possibility  that  groups  without  medial  factors  may  be  regarded 


16 


THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


as  definite  types,  now  rarely  found  in  their  pure  state,  and  that 
all  the  groups  comprising  one  or  more  medial  factors  are  the 
result  of  the  blending  and  fusion  of  these.  In  how  far  there  is 
any  justification  for  thinking  that  these  types  actually  consti- 
tute “races,”  we  may  leave  for  discussion  in  our  final  chapter; 
we  are  here  concerned  with  them  only  as  somewhat  arbitrarily 
selected  factors,  which,  in  some  cases  at  least,  seem  to  have  a 
distinct  racial  significance. 

If  we  are  willing  to  accept  as  a working  hypothesis  that  the 
eight  groups  of  this  sort  are  fundamental  types,  from  which  all 
the  others  have  been  derived  by  blending,  we  have  placed  in  our 
hands  a key  which  will  unlock  many  a door  and  open  far-reaching 
vistas  into  the  problems  of  the  classification  and  distribution  of 
peoples.  For  we  may  thus  resolve  our  primary  analyses  already 
described,  into  their  ultimate  and  fundamental  factors,  greatly 
simplifying  comparisons  and  enabling  us  to  bring  out  hitherto 
unsuspected  relationships  and  to  outline  a coherent  theory  of  the 
origin  and  spread  of  the  many  varieties  of  mankind. 

But,  before  any  such  theory  can  be  accepted  even  as  a tenta- 
tive working  hypothesis,  one  immediately  obvious  difficulty  must 
be  confronted.  In  assuming  that  intermediate  forms  have  arisen 
from  the  blending  of  two  extreme  forms,  the  whole  complex 
question  of  heredity  is  at  once  raised.  If  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  the  skull  and  nose  are  subject  to  the  laws  of  Mendelian 
inheritance,  then  the  origin  of  medial  forms  cannot  well  be  ac- 
counted for  on  the  basis  of  mixture,  since  according  to  these  laws 
the  offspring  of  contrasted  forms  reproduce  the  parental  types. 
For  certain  external  criteria,  such  as  pigmentation  and  hair- 
form,  strong  cases  have  been  made  out  for  the  operation  of  Men- 
delian laws  in  man;  but  for  most  of  the  other  criteria  and  spe- 
cifically for  head-form  little  conclusive  evidence  proving  such 
inheritance  has  yet  been  presented.  The  very  recent  extensive 
investigations  of  Frets1  are  largely  invalidated  by  his  indiscrimi- 
nate inclusion  of  children  with  adults  in  his  calculations.  If, 
however,  we  extract  from  his  tables  those  cases  in  which  the  two 

1 Frets,  1921. 


INTRODUCTION 


17 


parents  are  of  sharply  contrasted  types  (Dolichocephalic  and 
Brachycephalic)  and  consider  only  the  adult  children,  the  evi- 
dence is  distinctly  in  favor  of  the  development  of  mesocephalic 
or  medial  forms.  So  far,  then,  as  our  present  knowledge  goes, 
we  are  probably  justified  in  regarding  head-form,  and,  by  anal- 
ogy, nose-form,  as  not  directly  subject  to  Mendelian  inheritance, 
and  in  regarding  the  origin  of  medial  forms  as  due  to  blending. 

Accepting,  then,  as  valid  the  method  proposed  for  the  ulti- 
mate analysis  of  any  people  for  whom  adequate  data  are  avail- 
able, it  will  be  necessary  to  make  clear  a few  details  in  regard  to 
its  practical  application.  To  facilitate  reference  to  the  eight 
fundamental  “types”  and  the  nineteen  “blends”  which  together 
make  up  the  twenty-seven  possible  groups  into  which  the  three 
indices  selected  may  be  divided,  they  may  be  represented  by 
abbreviated  formulas,  letting 

D = Dolichocephalic.  H = Hypsicephalic.  L = Leptorrhine. 

M = Mesocephalic.  O = Orthocephalic.  M = Mesorrhine. 

B = Brachycephalic.  C = Chamaecephalic.  P = Platyrrhine. 


Then  D-H-L  = Dolichocephalic,  Hypsicephalic,  Leptor- 
rhine; M-C-P  = Mesocephalic,  Chamaecephalic,  Platyrrhine; 
B-O-M  = Brachycephalic,  Orthocephalic,  Mesorrhine;  etc.,  etc. 
The  eight  primary  or  fundamental  types  will  then  be: 

D-H-L,  D-C-L,  D-H-P,  D-C-P 
B-H-L,  B-C-L,  B-H-P,  B-C-P 


The  nineteen  forms  derived  by  the  blending  of  any  two  of 
these  will  then  fall  into  three  classes: 


A. 

B-H-M 

M-H-L 

B-O-L 

M-H-P 

B-O-P 

M-C-L 

B-C-M 

M-C-P 

B. 

B-O-M 

M-O-P 

M-H-M 

M-C-M 

M-O-L 

D-O-M 

C. 

M-O-M 

D-H-M 

D-O-L 

D-O-P 

D-C-M 


18 


THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


The  “blends”  in  the  first  class  can  each  arise  only  from  a 
single  pair  of  fundamental  types;  thus,  B-H-M  can  only  be  de- 
rived from  the  fusion  of  B-H-L  and  B-H-P;  M-H-P  can  be 
formed  only  by  the  mixture  of  D-H-P  and  B-H-P;  D-O-L  from 
D-H-L  and  D-C-L,  there  being  but  one  medial  factor  involved. 
The  blends  of  the  second  class,  on  the  other  hand,  with  two 
medial  factors,  may  be  derived  from  either  of  two  pairs  of  funda- 
mental types,  thus  B-O-M  = B-H-L  + B-C-P,  or  B-C-L  -f- 
B-H-P.  The  single  blend  constituting  the  third  class,  having 
all  three  factors  medial,  may  be  derived  from  any  one  of  four 
possible  pairs,  since  M-O-M  = B-H-P  + D-C-L  or  B-C-P  + 
D-H-L  or  B-H-L  + D-C-P  or  B-C-L  + D-H-P.  Blends  of 
the  second  and  third  classes  may,  of  course,  also  arise  through 
the  fusion  of  other  blends,  thus  B-O-M  = B-O-P  + B-O-L, 
but  these  in  their  turn  resolve  into  the  same  fundamental  factors 
as  given  above,  so  that  for  the  sake  of  simplicity  we  may  usually 
resolve  the  blends  directly  into  their  ultimate  “types.” 

Where  now  the  preliminary  analysis  of  a series  of  crania 
yields  only  fundamental  types  and  blends  of  the  first  class,  the 
ultimate  analysis  is  simple,  and  there  can  be  but  one  result.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  preliminary  analysis  shows  many  blends 
in  the  second  or  third  classes,  the  final  analysis  presents  uncer- 
tainties, since  the  result  will  depend  on  which  pairs  of  funda- 
mental types  are  regarded  as  responsible  for  the  blends.  If  some 
fundamental  types  are  present  in  strength  they  serve  as  indica- 
tors; in  their  absence  the  final  result  must  be  regarded  as  more 
or  less  uncertain.  In  resolving  the  blends  into  their  respective 
types,  the  purely  arbitrary  assumption  has  had  to  be  made  that 
the  two  constituents  shared  equally  in  the  result,  and  that  thus 
half  the  percentage  represented  by  the  blend  should  be  assigned 
to  each  “type.”  Doubtless  this  is  far  from  always  being  the 
case,  so  that  for  this  and  other  reasons  the  actual  figures  ob- 
tained for  the  several  types  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  in  any 
sense  mathematically  exact;  they  are  merely  rough  indications 
of  relative  values  only. 

A concrete  example  will  aid  in  making  the  application  of  the 


INTRODUCTION 


19 


method  and  the  character  of  the  results  clear.  Turning  to  the 
Eskimo  series  given  on  page  1 1 we  have : 

D-O-L  = 60 . 5%  = D-H-L  + D-C-L 
D-H-L  = 18.6%  = D-H-L 
D-C-L  = 7.9%  = D-C-L 

D-O-M  = 5.2%  = D-H-L  + D-C-P  (or  D-C-L  + D-H-P) 
M-O-L  = 5.2%  = D-H-L  + B-C-L  (or  D-C-L  + B-H-L) 
D-H-M  = 2.6%  = D-H-L  + D-H-P 

Here  the  fourth  and  fifth  groups  are  each  capable  of  two  in- 
terpretations; in  view,  however,  of  the  fact  that  the  D-H-L 
type  is  so  much  more  strongly  represented  than  the  D-C-L  it  is 
probable  that  it  is  the  former  rather  than  the  latter  type  which 
is  concerned,  and  that  we  may  reject  the  resolution  given  in 
parentheses.  On  this  basis,  then,  the  fundamental  types  are 
present  approximately  in  the  following  proportions: 

D-H-L  = 55-3% 

D-C-L  = 38.1% 

D-C-P  = 2.6% 

B-C-L  = 2.6% 

D-H-P  = 1.3% 


This  may  be  interpreted  as  meaning  that  the  Eskimo  of 
northwestern  Greenland  are  in  the  main  the  result  of  the  fusion 
of  two  fundamental  types,  the  D-H-L  and  the  D-C-L,  in  which 
the  former  evidently  plays  the  leading  part,  and  that  the  influ- 
ence of  any  of  the  other  types  is  practically  negligible. 

Treating  the  Alikaluf  series  in  the  same  fashion,  we  have: 

D-H-L  = 42.8%  = D-H-L 

M-H-L  = 35.7%  = D-H-L  + B-H-L 

D-H-M  = 7.1%  = D-H-L  + D-H-P 

D-O-M  = 7.1%  = D-H-L  + D-C-P  (or  D-C-L  + D-H-P) 

M-O-M  = 7.1%=  D-H-L  + B-C-P  (or  D-C-L  + B-H-P,  or  B-H-L 
+ D-C-P,  etc.) 


The  last  two  factors  are  here  capable  of  more  than  one  analy- 
sis, but,  on  the  same  basis  as  in  the  previous  case,  the  prepon- 


20 


THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


derant  strength  of  the  D-H-L  type  makes  the  decision  between 
the  alternatives  clear.  The  final  result  is  thus  roughly: 

D-H-L  =71.2% 

B-H-L  = 17.8% 

D-H-P  = 3.5% 

D-C-P  = 3.5% 

B-C-P  = 3.5% 

The  Alikaluf  thus  are  to  a much  greater  extent  than  the 
Eskimo  derived  from  a single  fundamental  type,  and  this  is  the 
same  which  is  in  the  majority  among  the  Eskimo.  Here,  how- 
ever, we  find  a considerable  B-H-L  factor  which  was  absent 
among  the  latter. 

It  cannot  be  too  emphatically  stated  that  at  this  stage  of  our 
inquiry  there  is  no  implication  that  these  ‘Types”  so  isolated  are 
“races.”  In  the  final  chapter  the  question  of  their  possible 
racial  significance  will  be  discussed ; for  the  present,  however,  the 
use  of  these  types  in  the  attempt  to  analyze  and  compare  the 
various  peoples  of  the  world  is  merely  the  employment  of  a 
standard  of  reference,  of  a common  measure  which  can  be  uni- 
versally applied  to  determine  their  character  and  relations  on 
the  basis  of  this  arbitrary  standard. 

Here,  however,  a doubt  may  arise  as  to  whether  these  stand- 
ards possess  any  real  uniformity.  The  whole  scheme  of  the 
eight  “types”  and  nineteen  “blends”  arises  from  the  division 
of  the  three  indices  into  three  subdivisions,  upper,  medial,  and 
lower;  but  since  these  subdivisions  are  purely  arbitrary,  what 
reason  have  we  for  regarding  the  groups  based  upon  them  as 
real?  We  form  a group,  for  example,  of  those  crania  which  fall 
into  the  classes  respectively  called  Dolichocephalic,  Hypsicephal- 
ic,  and  Platyrrhine,  but  is  there  any  reason  for  believing  that 
these  crania  are  actually  long,  for  example,  and  that  their  in- 
dices do  not  in  the  majority  of  cases  lie  so  close  to  the  arbitrary 
dividing  line  between  Dolichocephalic  and  Mesocephalic  that 
the  crania  are  more  truly  to  be  thought  of  as  members  of  a 
group  which  is  actually  between  these  divisions  and  having  no 
necessary  relation  to  either?  And,  further,  have  we  any  justifi- 


INTRODUCTION 


21 


cation  for  thinking  that  crania  of  the  D-H-P  type  found  among 
one  people  are  really  similar  to  those  belonging  to  the  same  type 
among  another? 

The  answer  to  both  these  questions  may,  I believe,  be  given 
in  the  affirmative.  If  we  take  a number  of  crania  belonging  to 
any  one  of  the  eight  fundamental  types  and  calculate  the  aver- 
age cranial,  altitudinal,  and  nasal  indices,  it  appears  that  this  is 
in  practically  every  case  clearly  typical  of  its  class.  Thus,  in  the 
case  of  a group  of  the  D-H-P  type  from  West  Africa  we  find  the 
cranial  index  to  be  73,  unequivocally  Dolichocephalic;  the  alti- 
tudinal index  77,  clearly  Hypsicephalic ; the  nasal  index  55,  pro- 
nouncedly Platyrrhine.  The  D-H-P  type  here  is  thus  a clear- 
cut  one,  possessed  of  definitely  long,  high  skulls  and  broad  noses. 
The  same  results  are  obtained  in  the  case  of  other  types.  For 
the  “ blends”  the  definiteness  is  not  so  clearly  marked. 

When,  now,  the  indices  for  such  a type  among  one  people  are 
compared  with  those  for  the  same  type  among  another  people, 
it  is  found  that  they  are  usually  very  nearly  alike,  and,  further, 
that  the  averages  of  the  absolute  measurements,  for  example,  of 
length,  breadth,  and  height  of  the  skull  on  which  measurements 
the  indices  are  based,  are  also  closely  similar.  When  it  is  consid- 
ered that  (1)  the  data  have  been  gathered  by  different  observers, 
in  some  cases  using  slightly  different  methods,  (2)  that  the  num- 
ber of  crania  available  in  such  groups  is  usually  small,  and  (3) 
that  incorrect  sex  identification  may  disturb  the  results,  the 
closeness  of  agreement  in  absolute  measurements  is  quite  sur- 
prising. The  closeness  of  these  correspondences  is  shown  in  the 
examples1  on  page  22. 

For  convenience  of  reference  and  to  avoid  the  continual  use 
of  unfamiliar  and  forbidding  formulae,  names  have  been  given 
to  the  eight  fundamental  types  as  follows: 

D-H-L Caspian  B-H-L Alpine 

D-C-L Mediterranean  B-C-L Ural 

D-H-P Proto-Negroid  B-H-P Palae-Alpine 

D-C-P Proto-Australoid  B-C-P Mongoloid 


1 Absolute  measurements  in  millimetres. 


22 


THE  RACIAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN 


Locality  or  Tribe 

Length 

Breadth 

Height 

C.  Ind. 

Al.  Ind. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Caspian— D-H-L 

Russian  Kurgans  (7) 

186 . I 

134 

3 

142 

O 

72 

O 

76. 2 

43 

8 

N.  W.  Greenland  Eskimo 

(i5) 

188. 2 

134 

4 

140 

I 

71 

4 

76.6 

43 

O 

Mediterranean — D-C-L 

Ancient  Egypt  (16) 

00 

Co 

0 

134 

O 

128 

0 

71 

3 

68 . 1 

43 

9 

London  seventeenth  cen- 

tury  (16) 

191 . 6 

138 

9 

128 

8 

72 

5 

67 . 2 

44 

O 

California  (5) 

189.4 

134 

4 

128 

O 

70 

8 

67-5 

44 

O 

Pro  to-N  egroid — D-H-P 

W.  Africa,  Gaboon  (9) 

181 . 7 

133 

2 

140 

0 

73 

3 

77.0 

55 

3 

Ancient  Egvpt  (28) 

180. 7 

130 

I 

137 

O 

7i 

9 

75-9 

54 

8 

Iroquois  (4) 

185-7 

134 

2 

140 

7 

72 

O 

75  - 6 

57 

O 

Proto-Australoid — D-C-P 

Australia  (Victoria)  (28).  . . 

183.0 

129 

6 

124 

I 

68 

2 

64. 2 

56 

O 

Ancient  Egypt  (38) 

186.4 

133 

7 

128 

8 

7r 

4 

68.8 

54 

4 

California  (6) 

190.0 

136 

I 

128 

8 

7i 

6 

67.7 

53 

3 

Alpine — B-H-L 

Switzerland  (Valais)  (28)  . . 

1765 

ISO 

6 

136 

0 

85 

I 

77-5 

43 

2 

Hawaii  (9) 

176.4 

147 

6 

141 

O 

83 

7 

79-9 

44 

7 

China  (8) 

173-3 

144 

2 

137 

3 

83 

3 

78.6 

44 

8 

Ural— B-C-L 

Switzerland  (Valais)  (9)  . . . 

184.7 

154 

O 

124 

8 

83 

1 

67.4 

43 

7 

Kalmuck  (3) 

185.6 

153 

3 

126 

6 

82 

6 

68.2 

42 

8 

Palae-Alpine — B-H-P 

Negrito  (Philippines)  (22) . . 

172.0 

145 

0 

138 

O 

84 

O 

80.0 

55 

O 

Switzerland  (Valais)  (20).  . 

175-6 

145 

O 

141 

O 

82 

O 

80.0 

56 

0 

Mongoloid — B-C-P 

Kalmuck  (9) 

180. 1 

149 

O 

122 

O 

82 

7 

67.6 

52 

6 

Switzerland  (Valais)  (8)  . . . 

183.5 

152 

5 

125 

7 

83 

2 

68.5 

53 

O 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  however,  to  bear  in  mind  that 
these  terms  are  used  with  a very  definite  and  very  restricted 
meaning.  They  designate  in  each  case  a particular  combination 
of  the  three  selected  criteria  and  nothing  more.  Thus  the  Proto- 
Negroid  type  designates  a form  of  skull  which  is  Dolichocephalic, 
Hypsicephalic,  and  Platyrrhine,  and  carries  with  it  no  necessary 
implication  whatever  that  any  other  features  which  we  may  be 
accustomed  to  think  of  as  occurring  in  Negro  crania  are  also 
present;  and  the  statement  that  among  a given  people  the  Proto- 


INTRODUCTION 


23 


Negroid  type  is  strongly  represented  does  not  imply  that  they 
have  or  had  a black  skin  or  woolly  hair.  How  far  any  other 
characteristics  may  be  associated  with  the  eight  fundamental 
types  will,  with  other  questions,  be  discussed  in  the  concluding 
chapter.  I wish,  however,  to  call  attention  here  at  the  outset 
to  the  possibility  that  such  other  characters  as  may  be  asso- 
ciated with  a ‘‘type”  in  one  part  of  the  world  may  be  greatly 
weakened  or  even  partially  absent  and  replaced  by  others  in 
another  region  in  which  the  type  has  been  subject  to  totally  dif- 
ferent environmental  conditions  and  been  in  contact  with  other 
types  for  very  long  periods  of  time.  The  older  the  type,  the 
further  it  has  wandered,  the  greater  the  vicissitudes  of  its  his- 
tory, the  more  variable  in  these  respects  we  may  expect  it  to  be. 

The  method  and  point  of  view  adopted  in  the  present  study 
have  now  been  outlined,  and  we  may  therefore  proceed  to  the 
task  before  us.  For  each  continent  a general  resume  will  first  be 
given,  in  which  the  broad  outlines  of  its  history  in  terms  of  our 
chosen  types  will  be  sketched,  followed  by  a more  detailed  con- 
sideration of  the  various  natural  or  political  subdivisions.  The 
conclusions  to  which  we  are  led  will  in  many  cases  be  novel;  in 
some  they  will  at  first  sight  appear  revolutionary  or  even  ab- 
surd. Yet  if  judgment  be  but  suspended  until  all  the  evidence 
is  in  and  available  for  general  synthesis  and  discussion  in  the 
concluding  chapter,  I believe  that  their  reasonableness  will  be 
admitted,  and  the  picture  which  they  give  us  of  the  distribution, 
history,  and  proximate  origin  of  the  different  varieties  of  man- 
kind, will  be  accepted  as  a logical  answer  to  the  problem  with 
which  we  started,  and  one  which,  in  view  of  the  incompleteness 
of  the  record,  may  be  a fair  approximation  to  the  truth. 


BOOK  I 
EUROPE 


INTRODUCTION 


The  continent  of  Europe  may  be  divided  geographically  into 
three  very  unequal  parts.  The  first  and  by  far  the  largest  is 
that  of  the  great  plain  which  occupies  the  east  and  north,  com- 
prising all  of  Russia,  Poland,  and  the  Baltic  lands,  and  which 
sends  a long  arm  westward  through  northern  Germany,  the 
Netherlands,  Belgium,  and  northern  France  to  the  British  Isles. 
Forested  in  the  north,  grassland  and  steppe  in  the  south,  it  is 
but  an  extension  of  the  great  lowland  of  northern  Asia,  with 
which  it  is  essentially  continuous,  the  low  chain  of  the  Urals 
forming  in  no  sense  a barrier.  Along  its  Atlantic  margin  in 
Norway  and  the  northwestern  part  of  the  British  Isles  it  is  lim- 
ited by  a strip  of  rugged  and  mountainous  country,  with  rocky 
and  deeply  indented  shores.  South  of  this  great  unbroken  plain, 
and  extending  from  the  Aegean  and  the  western  end  of  the  Black 
Sea  through  the  Balkan  peninsula,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Swit- 
zerland to  France,  lies  a relatively  narrow  belt  of  highlands  and 
mountain  ranges.  Broken  in  its  eastern  and  wider  portion  by 
the  plain  of  Hungary  and  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  it  is  narrowed 
and  its  elevation  intensified  in  Switzerland,  is  cut  across  by  the 
Rhone  valley,  and  beyond  the  Massif  Central  of  France  dies 
away  in  the  rocky  peninsula  of  Brittany.  Just  as  the  plain  is 
but  a continuation  of  the  great  lowland  of  northern  Asia,  so  the 
European  Highlands  are  but  the  dwindling  western  termination 
of  the  vast  belt  of  plateau  and  mountain  which  sweeps  across 
Asia  from  northeastern  Siberia,  through  Mongolia,  Tibet,  and 
the  Iranian  Plateau  to  the  uplands  of  Asia  Minor.  Lastly,  as 
mere  appendages  to  the  European  continent  we  have  the  third 
subdivision,  comprising  the  Iberian  and  Italian  peninsulas,  with 
the  islands  of  Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  Sicily;  appendages  which 
may  be  regarded  primarily  as  bridges,  now  broken  but  once  con- 
tinuous, connecting  the  European  continent  with  Africa. 

These  three  areas — the  plains,  the  highlands,  and  the  land 

27 


28 


EUROPE 


bridges — have  in  large  measure  shaped  and  determined  the  racial 
history  of  Europe.  And  just  as  Europe  is,  after  all,  but  a great 
peninsula  of  Asia,  so  its  racial  history  has  to  a great  extent  been 
largely  dependent  on  that  of  the  greater  continent.  With  Africa 
its  ethnic  and  its  geographic  connections  have  been,  on  the  whole, 
less  important. 

Almost  all  the  remains  of  what  are  historically  the  most 
ancient  types  of  mankind  have  been  discovered  in  Europe.  We 
have  reason  to  believe  that  equally  ancient,  perhaps  even  more 
ancient  remains  will  be  found  in  other  parts  of  the  Old  World, 
when  these  have  been  searched  with  the  same  care  and  minute- 
ness that  have  been  exercised  in  Europe  during  the  last  half 
century.  For  the  present,  however,  the  bulk  of  our  knowledge 
of  early  man  is  derived  from  the  European  continent,  and  it  is 
therefore  fitting  that  any  study  of  the  characteristics,  distribu- 
tion, and  sequence  of  races  should  begin  here. 

In  the  early  Palaeolithic  period,  which  we  may  place  perhaps 
some  fifty  thousand  years  ago,  we  find  in  Spain,  in  France,  in 
Belgium,  in  southeastern  England  and  in  the  Rhine  valley  one 
single  variety  of  man,  generally  called  the  Neanderthal  Race. 
It  is  characterized,  among  other  features,  by  a long,  low  skull 
and  a broad  nose,  a combination  of  factors  which  marks  these 
very  early  men  as  examples  of  our  Pro  to- Australoid  type.  Yet 
even  at  this  earliest  period  there  are  indications  that  the  popu- 
lation was  not  wholly  uniform,  for  everywhere  except  in  Ger- 
many there  is  a suggestion  of  mixture  with  a brachycephalic 
type,  that  to  which  we  have  given  the  name  of  Mongoloid. 
That  either  of  these  types  originated  in  Europe  we  have  no  evi- 
dence, and  if  we  are  to  seek  a source  for  them  we  are  led,  in  the 
case  at  least  of  the  dominant  Proto-Australoid  type,  across  the 
land  bridges  to  Africa.  For  the  Mongoloid  factor  the  evidence 
is  so  meagre  that  nothing  certain  can  be  said. 

The  later  part  of  the  Palaeolithic  period  saw  a radical  change 
in  the  population  at  least  of  western  and  central  Europe,  whence 
most  of  our  data  come.  In  France,  in  southern  Germany,  and 
in  Bohemia  the  forerunners  of  the  Mediterranean  type  appear, 


INTRODUCTION 


29 


coming  perhaps  from  the  eastward  or  from  the  Mediterranean 
shores  of  Africa.  A second  new  dolichocephalic  type  also  ap- 
pears, the  Caspian,  which  has  so  far  been  found  in  Palaeolithic 
times  mainly  in  France.  From  its  distribution  in  Neolithic  times, 
when  it  was  of  great  importance,  it  seems  clear  that  it  must  have 
entered  Europe  from  the  east,  by  way  of  the  plains.  A third 
type,  known  as  yet  from  a single  locality  only  (the  Grimaldi 
caves  on  the  Riviera)  is  the  Proto-Negroid. 

During  the  ensuing  or  Neolithic  period  we  can  trace  with 
greater  certainty  several  wide-spread  racial  movements.  The 
Mediterranean  type,  which  had  begun  to  penetrate  the  west  at 
the  end  of  Palaeolithic  times,  had  now  made  itself  master  of  the 
Iberian  peninsula,  all  of  France  (except  the  basin  of  the  Seine), 
Ireland,  and  western  Scotland,  and  was  fighting  with  the  Palae- 
Alpine  type  for  the  control  of  England.  In  the  south  it  held 
Italy,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia.  In  western  Switzerland  and  the 
Seine  basin  it  was  contending  with  the  vigorous  Palae-Alpine 
type  for  leadership,  and  for  a time  fought  apparently  a losing 
battle.  Yet  its  advance-guards  found  their  way  across  the  Rhine 
into  Germany,  as  far  as  the  Baltic  and  into  Bohemia,  where  the 
type  is  found  at  this  time  as  a minor  factor. 

This  great  thrust  of  the  Mediterranean  type  from  the  south- 
ward into  the  heart  of  Europe  shattered  and  largely  destroyed 
the  people  of  the  older  Proto- Australoid  and  Mongoloid  types; 
yet  not  completely,  for  fragments  still  survived.  In  Spain  and 
France  the  invading  Mediterraneans  made  a pretty  clean  sweep, 
yet  even  here  enough  of  the  ancient  population  remained  to  leave 
its  traces  in  the  remote  mountain  valleys  of  Portugal  and  in 
Brittany  to-day.  In  western  Switzerland,  England,  and  Bel- 
gium the  Proto- Australoid  type  appears  in  small  proportions  in 
the  Neolithic  crania,  its  chief  areas  of  survival  lying  in  two 
wddely  separated  regions,  Sardinia  (and  probably  also  Corsica) 
and  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas.  The  advance  of 
the  Mediterraneans  northward  seems  thus  to  have  driven  a con- 
siderable mass  of  the  older  Proto-Australoid  and  Mongoloid 
types  before  them. 


30 


EUROPE 


While  thus  the  Mediterranean  type  was  spreading  north- 
ward through  western  Europe,  a new  type,  the  Palae-Alpine, 
made  its  appearance  from  the  east,  entering  the  continent  in  part 
by  way  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  but  in  the  main,  probably, 
around  the  northern  side  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  spreading  along 
the  northern  edge  of  the  European  Highlands.  It  is  found  as 
the  dominant  factor  among  the  Neolithic  lake-dwelling  popula- 
tion of  Switzerland,  and  is  of  equal  importance  with  the  Medi- 
terranean type  in  the  crania  of  Chamblandes,  near  Lake  Ge- 
neva. From  here  it  may  be  traced  as  a strong  element  in  the 
Neolithic  population  of  the  Jura  and  basin  of  the  Seine,  the  up- 
lands of  the  Ardennes  and  across  into  England,  where  it  disputes 
for  precedence  with  the  Mediterranean  type  in  the  Long  Barrow 
graves.  It  would  appear  to  have  passed  northward  to  Den- 
mark, where  it  was  the  strongest  single  element  in  Neolithic 
times,  and  to  be  represented  as  a minor  factor  in  southern  Swe- 
den and  also  in  Silesia.  Toward  the  very  end  of  the  Neolithic 
period  it  is  dominant  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  France  the  appearance  of  the 
Caspian  type  was  already  noted  at  the  end  of  the  Palaeolithic 
period.  In  Neolithic  times  this  type  becomes  of  great  impor- 
tance in  Europe  and  seems  to  have  penetrated  westward  through 
the  Russian  plains  to  the  Baltic,  and  up  the  valley  of  the  Dan- 
ube to  central  Europe.  It  appears  in  Neolithic  times  as  the 
dominant  racial  type  in  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  whence  it  prob- 
ably passed  along  the  northern  margin  of  the  Highlands  west- 
ward into  France  and  down  the  Rhine  to  Belgium  and  Britain. 
It  is  also  the  leading  factor  in  Neolithic  times  in  Sweden  and 
appears  as  a minor  element  in  Denmark.  How  it  reached  the 
Baltic  lands  is  an  interesting  question.  From  Bohemia  it  might 
have  passed  down  the  valley  of  the  Elbe,  and  so  by  way  of  the 
Danish  peninsula  to  Sweden,  coming  early  in  the  Neolithic 
period  prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  Pake-Alpine  type,  and  perhaps 
forced  out  of  Denmark  by  it.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  have 
reached  Sweden  by  way  of  the  eastern  Baltic,  since  the  crania 
from  this  region  in  the  period  immediately  following  show  a very 


INTRODUCTION 


31 


large  factor  of  the  Caspian  type.  It  is  tempting  to  accept  this 
suggestion  and  believe  that  from  these  eastern  Baltic  longheads 
the  Goths  were  derived,  who  would  then  in  the  first  century 
A.  D.,  in  their  movement  southward  toward  the  Black  Sea,  have 
been  retracing  the  earlier  route  by  which  their  Neolithic  ances- 
tors came  to  the  Baltic  shores. 

On  the  basis  of  the  theory  here  advanced  the  population  of 
Europe  in  Neolithic  times  is  assumed  to  have  comprised  factors 
belonging  to  three  types:  (i)  the  Mediterranean,  which  probably 
passed  northward  from  Africa  by  the  land  bridges,  moving  in 
general  north  and  northeast;  (2)  the  Pals- Alpine,  entering 
Europe  from  the  southeast  and  moving  west  and  northwest 
through  the  Highlands  to  the  North  Sea;  and  (3)  the  Caspian, 
spreading  from  the  steppes  of  southeastern  Russia  westward  up 
the  Danube  valley.  In  addition  there  were  the  remnants  of  the 
older  Palaeolithic  peoples,  the  Proto-Australoid  surviving  in  out- 
of-the-way  corners  in  the  Iberian  peninsula,  Brittany,  and  the 
western  portion  of  the  British  Isles,  and  in  part  driven  into  the 
Baltic  Lands;  and  the  Mongoloid,  the  survivors  of  which  lin- 
gered mainly  in  the  region  of  the  Alps,  or  had  been  driven  north- 
ward into  the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  Yet  the  picture,  com- 
plex as  it  is,  is  not  complete,  for  still  another  important  type 
makes  its  appearance  in  Neolithic  times,  one  whose  method  of 
distribution  differed  from  all  the  rest,  and  which  in  later  ages 
was  to  play  an  ever  greater  and  greater  part — the  Alpine  type. 

This  name,  however  well  it  may  fit  with  the  distribution  of 
the  type  in  the  Europe  of  to-day,  ill  accords  with  its  role  when 
we  meet  it  for  the  first  time,  for  in  the  Neolithic  period  the 
Alpine  type  seems  to  have  been  largely  confined  to  the  coasts 
of  Europe,  and  its  diffusion  seems  almost  certainly  to  have  be- 
gun by  sea.  If  we  except  the  late  Neolithic  or  more  probably 
early  Bronze  sites  in  southeastern  Spain,  the  Alpine  type  was 
nowhere  a dominant  factor  in  the  population,  although  every- 
where present  where  it  could  have  come  by  sea.  In  Sicily,  Sar- 
dinia, and  southern  Italy,  in  southern  and  western  France,  and 
perhaps  in  Ireland  it  is  a not  unimportant  element,  and  increases 


32 


EUROPE 


in  importance  in  the  basin  of  the  Seine,  in  Belgium,  Denmark, 
and  southern  Sweden,  while  traces  of  it  may  be  found  in  the 
supposedly  Neolithic  crania  of  the  eastern  Baltic.  In  the  in- 
terior of  Europe,  however,  in  Switzerland,  Bohemia,  Hungary, 
Silesia,  etc.,  the  Alpine  type  is  either  wholly  absent  or  present 
in  small  proportions.  We  can  hardly  escape  the  belief,  there- 
fore, that  its  spread  was  primarily  by  sea. 

But  whence?  Are  we  to  see  in  these  Neolithic  brachy- 
cephals,  the  forerunners,  as  it  were,  of  the  Phoenicians,  and 
regard  them  as  coming  from  Asia  Minor  along  the  Mediterranean 
shores,  and  then  out  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  and  so 
northward;  or  were  they  rather  the  advance-guards  of  those  dar- 
ing sea-rovers  and  raiders  from  Scandinavia  and  the  Baltic,  who 
in  the  years  to  come  were  to  harry  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterra- 
nean coasts  not  only  of  Europe  but  of  northern  Africa  as  well? 
The  relatively  greater  importance  of  the  type  in  the  western 
Baltic  and  shores  of  the  North  Sea  might  seem  to  favor  the  lat- 
ter view,  but  if  the  developments  of  the  succeeding  Bronze  and 
Iron  Ages  are  borne  in  mind,  it  is  evident  that  such  a northern 
origin  is  practically  impossible,  and  we  are  forced  to  adopt  the 
first  hypothesis,  and  regard  the  Alpines  as  spreading  in  the  main 
from  the  eastern  Mediterranean. 

Still  the  picture  of  Neolithic  Europe  is  incomplete,  for  yet 
another  type,  one  quite  unexpected,  reveals  itself  in  the  record — 
the  Proto-Negroid ! Traces  of  its  presence  in  later  Palaeolithic 
times  have  already  been  noted.  With  the  Proto-Australoid  it 
appears  to  have  been  driven  out  and  absorbed,  yet  like  this 
other,  although  it  survived  in  out-of-the-way  corners  in  the 
Iberian  peninsula  and  in  France,  the  major  remnants  were 
forced  northward  to  the  Baltic,  so  that  in  Neolithic  time  it  is  an 
important  factor  in  Mecklenburg,  Denmark,  and  southern  Swe- 
den. Its  influence  may  also  be  traced  in  Silesia  and  in  Bohemia. 
To  assert  the  presence  in  this  northern  region  of  a Proto-Negroid 
element  appears  at  first  sight  extremely  hazardous,  for  nothing 
could  well  be  more  unlike  the  fair  “ Nordic”  race  associated  with 
this  area.  Yet  the  evidence  of  the  crania  seems  inescapable, 


INTRODUCTION 


33 


and  we  must  apparently  accept  the  fact  that  a minority  of  this 
type  has  entered  into  the  complex  commonly  spoken  of  as  the 
“Nordic  race.” 

The  period  of  the  Bronze  Age  is  one  of  great  difficulty  for 
the  student  of  racial  history  in  Europe,  owing  to  the  wide-spread 
custom  of  cremation,  which  has  destroyed  most  of  the  opportuni- 
ties for  determining  the  character  of  the  population  during  this 
period,  or  has  left  remains  which  may  give  a wholly  incorrect 
picture  of  the  facts.  In  the  western  Baltic  region  little  change 
seems  to  have  occurred,  although  in  the  east  the  brachycephalic 
types  present  in  earlier  times  give  way  almost  wholly  to  dolicho- 
cephalic, among  which  the  Caspian  assumes  first  place,  with  the 
older  Proto-Australoid  a close  second.  The  British  Isles  show  at 
least  for  southern  and  central  England  the  replacement  of  the 
older  Palae-Alpine  by  the  Alpine  type,  which  is  easily  the  domi- 
nant element  in  the  Round  Barrows.  As  the  Yorkshire  bar- 
rows  show  little  of  the  Alpine  element  and  much  of  the  Palae- 
Alpine,  there  seems  to  have  been  a withdrawal  of  the  older  type 
before  the  invading  Alpines. 

During  the  Bronze  Age  the  Alpine  type  also  increases  largely 
in  France,  Belgium,  and  southwestern  Germany.  To  some  ex- 
tent, perhaps,  it  still  came  by  way  of  the  seacoasts,  but  in  con- 
trast to  the  earlier  period  it  was  distributed  in  larger  measure  by 
land  along  the  Highlands.  It  was  probably  from  this  source 
that  the  Alpine  immigration  into  Italy  took  place,  first  into  the 
valley  of  the  Po,  and  then  later  crossing  the  Apennines  and 
spreading  southward  along  the  Tyrrhenian  coast  to  enter  into 
the  make-up  of  the  Latins. 

The  period  from  the  end  of  the  Bronze  Age  to  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era  seems  to  have  been  one  of  comparative 
quiet  and  readjustment,  during  which  no  great  movements  can 
be  traced,  but  in  which  extensive  and  far-reaching  assimilation 
of  the  various  types  took  place.  The  Baltic  area  became  in- 
creasingly dolichocephalic,  the  older  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine 
elements  being  largely  absorbed.  The  Caspian  type  was  in- 
creasingly dominant,  being  strengthened  apparently  by  contin- 


34 


EUROPE 


ual  increments  from  the  Russian  plains,  and  from  it  and  the 
Mediterranean  type  with  minor  influences  of  the  earlier  long- 
headed types  was  developed,  during  this  long  period  of  ten  or 
fifteen  centuries,  the  complex  racial  blend  to  which  the  name  of 
‘‘Nordic”  has  been  applied.  For  these  blond,  dolichocephalic 
people  were  not  a pure  race,  and  wherever  we  find  them  show 
very  clearly  on  analysis  their  composite  origin.  The  problem  of 
how  and  why  their  distinctive  blondness  arose  cannot  be  dis- 
cussed here,  but  will  be  treated  in  the  final  chapter. 

In  the  British  Isles  during  this  long  period  a somewhat  simi- 
lar process  of  assimilation  went  on.  The  great  infusion  of  the 
Alpine  type  which  had  taken  place  in  the  Bronze  Age  was  largely 
absorbed,  save  perhaps  in  northeastern  Scotland  and  along  the 
southern  coast.  The  Caspian  type  had,  however,  never  come 
into  the  British  Isles  in  force,  so  here  the  factors  available  for 
blending  were  primarily  the  Mediterranean  together  with  rem- 
nants of  the  older  Pro  to- Australoid  and  the  Neolithic  Palae- 
Alpines. 

Into  the  Netherlands  and  northern  France  there  flowed,  from 
the  northeast  apparently,  an  intermittent  but  not  unimportant 
current  of  Baltic  longheads,  which  does  not  seem,  however,  to 
have  penetrated  beyond  the  Seine  basin.  The  rest  of  France 
received  continual  increments  of  Alpine  and  the  older  Pake- 
Alpine  types,  coming  in  from  the  Highlands,  which  had  now  be- 
come wholly  occupied  by  them.  As  in  France  so  in  Italy,  the 
Alpine  type  steadily  and  irresistibly  filtered  in.  Yet  this  was 
not  the  only  type  which  made  its  way  thither,  for  the  Iron  Age 
was  marked  by  the  appearance  in  Italy  for  the  first  time  in  any 
strength,  of  the  Caspian  type.  This  southward  drive  of  what 
was  for  Europe  mainly  a northern  type,  was  in  a sense  the  fore- 
runner of  the  invasions  of  the  Lombards  and  other  “Nordic” 
descendants  of  the  Caspian  type,  which  were  to  occur  a thou- 
sand years  or  more  later,  and  seems  to  have  had  as  little  per- 
manent influence  on  the  racial  make-up  of  the  people.  It  seems 
to  have  come  to  the  Adriatic  shores  by  way  of  the  Danube  val- 
ley and  around  the  head  of  the  Adriatic.  The  brachycephaliza- 


INTRODUCTION 


35 


tion  of  Italy  as  a result  of  the  southward  expansion  of  the  Alpine 
type  was,  however,  only  temporarily  stayed.  For,  although  in 
the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  B.  C.  the  populations  of  the  val- 
leys of  the  Tiber  and  the  Arno  were  still  at  least  half  composed 
of  Mediterranean  and  other  dolichocephalic  elements,  by  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era  the  Alpine  and  Pake-Alpine  fac- 
tors had  become  overwhelmingly  dominant. 

One  other  racial  modification  of  moment  occurred  during  this 
period  between  the  end  of  the  Bronze  Age  and  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era.  Vague  and  hazy  as  is  our  knowledge  of  the 
conditions  existing  in  the  Balkan  peninsula  during  prehistoric 
times,  it  seems  possible  to  detect  a difference  between  its  north- 
ern portion,  which  lies  in  direct  contact  with  western  Asia,  and 
its  southern  tip,  which  we  know  as  Greece.  Whereas  the  for- 
mer seems  from  the  earliest  times  to  have  been  the  highroad  by 
which  successive  waves  of  brachycephalic  peoples  passed  into 
central  Europe,  Greece  appears  to  have  had  a more  mixed  popu- 
lation, which  comprised  factors  of  both  the  Proto-Australoid  and 
Proto-Negroid  types.  Yet  as  early  as  the  Iron  Age  the  Alpine 
type  seems  to  have  been  in  the  preponderance  as  far  south  as 
Athens.  That  the  Dorian  Invasion  brought  into  Greece  a peo- 
ple primarily  of  this  type  seems  very  probable,  although  perhaps 
under  leaders  who  were  largely  of  Caspian  type.  In  the  cen- 
turies following  the  Dorian  Invasion  the  influence  of  the  Cas- 
pian type  became  stronger  and  stronger.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  this  intrusion  of  Caspian  types  did  not  extend  in 
force  into  the  Peloponnesus,  where  the  dolichocephalic  elements 
are  mainly  of  the  older  types.  On  this  hypothesis  the  opposition 
of  Athens  and  Sparta  and  the  rise  of  Macedonia  take  on  a deeper 
meaning. 

The  millennium  prior  to  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era, 
had  been  one,  in  general,  of  comparative  quiescence;  except  for 
the  thrust  of  Caspian  peoples  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Danube  and 
into  Greece  it  had  been  more  a period  of  amalgamation  and 
preparation.  About  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  how- 
ever, conditions  underwent  a rapid  change.  The  “Nordic”  peo- 


36 


EUROPE 


pies  developed  in  the  Baltic  lands  began  to  press  southward  and 
westward  with  ever-increasing  force,  until  at  last  they  burst 
through  the  wall  which  the  Romans  had  erected  against  them, 
and  spread  in  a mighty  flood  over  western  and  southern  Europe. 
From  the  Vistula  and  the  eastern  Baltic  the  Goths,  Gepidae,  and 
Herulae  moved  southward  to  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and 
then  streamed  westward  up  the  Danube  to  the  Balkans  and 
around  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  into  Italy,  France,  and  Spain. 
From  the  western  Baltic,  Saxon  and  Angle,  Frank,  Dane,  and 
Lombard  swarmed  into  England,  France,  and  Italy;  while  from 
the  more  central  parts  of  the  Baltic  regions  Alemani,  Suevi, 
Vandal,  and  Burgundian  beat  against  the  wall  of  the  Alps,  part 
being  deflected  westward  through  France  to  Spain  and  beyond, 
and  part  winning  through  to  fall  upon  the  north  of  Italy.  For 
some  600  years  the  northern  lands  continued  to  send  forth  swarm 
after  swarm  of  these  “Nordic”  raiders,  conquerors,  and  colonists, 
and  the  question  arises  how  far  this  great  outpouring  of  primarily 
dolichocephalic  peoples  affected  the  racial  character  of  the  rest 
of  Europe.  Before  answering  that  question,  two  other  great 
movements  of  peoples  must  be  considered. 

Beginning  somewhat  later  than  the  Baltic  drift,  a movement 
began  among  the  Slavs,  a people  living  then,  it  seems,  in  the 
plains  north  and  northeast  of  the  Carpathians  and  speaking  a 
language  closely  allied  to  the  Teutonic  speech  of  the  Baltic 
tribes.  Possibly  the  migration  of  the  Slavs  may  have  been  ini- 
tiated by  the  southward  movement  of  the  Goths,  but  be  that  as 
it  may,  about  the  sixth  century  the  Slavic  peoples  began  to  move 
northward  and  westward  into  northern  and  central  Germany 
and  Bohemia,  whence  they  passed  on  southward  into  the  Balkan 
peninsula,  penetrating  as  far  as  Greece.  A little  later  they 
spread  also  toward  the  northeast,  reaching  as  far  as  the  lake 
region  of  northwestern  Russia,  and  in  Novgorod  and  Moscow 
they  had  established  strong  states  by  the  eighth  or  ninth  cen- 
tury. The  problem  of  the  physical  type  of  these  early  Slavic- 
speaking peoples  is  extremely  puzzling,  and  one  to  which  a final 
answer  cannot  as  yet  be  given.  All  things  considered,  however, 


INTRODUCTION 


37 


the  most  plausible  theory  would  seem  to  be  that  they  were  a 
primarily  dolichocephalic  folk,  of  Caspian  and  Proto-Negroid 
types.  The  area  of  western  Russia  into  which  they  came  was 
occupied  by  Finnish  peoples,  whose  physical  characteristics  are 
also  greatly  in  doubt.  On  the  whole  it  is  probable  that  they 
were  predominantly  brachycephalic  and  primarily  Alpine,  al- 
though with  perhaps  a considerable  admixture  of  the  Ural  type. 

The  third  immigrant  stream  came  from  the  eastern  and 
southeastern  portion  of  the  Russian  plains,  and  comprised  the 
Alani,  Bolgari,  etc.  Of  mixed  Caspian  and  Alpine  types,  they 
moved  westward,  part  settling  in  the  lower  Danube  valley,  part 
passing  north  of  the  Carpathians  into  southern  Germany,  where 
they  joined  with  some  of  the  “ Nordic”  tribes,  such  as  the  Van- 
dals. From  this  same  direction,  also,  came  the  Avars,  Huns, 
and  Magyars,  some  of  whom  swept  like  a flame  across  Europe, 
while  others  settled  within  the  great  curve  of  the  Carpathians. 
Like  their  successors  from  the  inner  Asiatic  steppes  in  later 
times,  these  tribes  were  certainly  of  mixed  origin,  but  probably 
in  the  main  of  Alpine  type. 

In  sum,  then,  the  period  of  the  Volkerwanderung  influenced 
the  racial  history  of  Europe  in  three  main  ways:  (i)  It  brought 
into  all  of  western,  central,  and  southern  Europe  a flood  of  mixed 
dolichocephalic  peoples  from  the  Baltic  lands,  in  the  main  a 
blend  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types;  (2)  it  spread  through 
eastern  Germany,  western  Russia,  as  well  as  Hungary  and  the 
Balkan  peninsula  a mass  of  Slavic-speaking  dolichocephalic 
peoples;  and  (3)  it  brought  peoples  of  mixed  Caspian  and  Alpine 
types  into  the  Carpathians.  Central,  western,  and  southwest- 
ern Europe  thus  tended  to  become  dolichocephalized,  while  the 
east  and  southeast  were  brachycephalized.  The  penetration  of 
western  Europe  by  the  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  types,  so  marked 
during  Neolithic  and  Bronze  times,  was  thus  checked  for  a sea- 
son, while  the  southeast  was  invaded  by  ever-increasing  hordes 
of  Palae-Alpines  and  Alpines,  in  part  derived  from  Asia. 

Behind  these,  again,  came  still  others,  the  Pecheneg,  the 
Kuman,  and  the  somewhat  mysterious  Khazar,  all  of  whom  like- 


38 


EUROPE 


wise  seem  to  have  been  primarily  of  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine 
type.  They  settled  in  or  held  large  areas  in  the  southeast  of 
Russia,  and  the  Khazar  being  converted  to  Judaism  in  the 
eighth  century,  thereafter  seem  to  have  spread  far  and  wide  to 
the  west  and  northwest,  their  modern  descendants  probably 
forming  the  preponderant  element  among  the  east  European 
Jews. 

The  results  of  these  several  movements  were  strikingly  dif- 
ferent, as  we  see  when  we  compare  the  conditions  in  the  twelfth 
century  with  those  existing  in  the  sixteenth  or  seventeenth.  Of 
the  great  influx  of  “Nordic”  peoples  into  western,  central,  and 
southern  Europe,  little  trace  remained.  Southern  and  south- 
western Germany,  where  the  Reihengraber  of  the  Volkerwande- 
rung  period  show  Baltic  dolichocephals  present  in  equal  number 
with  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  types,  has  now  become  almost 
wholly  brachycephalic,  with  the  Alpine  type  strongly  domi- 
nant. Northward  through  the  Rhine  valley  to  Belgium  and  the 
Netherlands  these  two  brachycephalic  types  also  prevail.  In 
France  the  evidence  of  the  Frankish  dolichocephals  is  seen  only 
in  the  basin  of  the  Seine;  and  although  in  Brittany  and  along  the 
western  margin  of  the  Massif  Central,  traces  of  the  old  Palaeo- 
lithic longheads  still  survived,  everywhere  else  the  Palae-Alpines 
and  Alpines  were  the  dominating  elements.  Only  in  the  British 
Isles  were  the  roundheads  in  minority,  for  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury crania  from  eastern  England,  at  least,  show  a population 
almost  unchanged  in  its  composition  from  Neolithic  times,  ex- 
cept that  the  Mediterranean  type  is  even  more  securely  in  the 
lead.  Only  at  Hythe,  in  Kent,  do  we  find  brachycephals  domi- 
nant. Northeastern  Scotland  and  the  northern  islands  also  show 
strong  survival  of  Alpine  types.  Switzerland  by  the  seventeenth 
century  had  become  a purely  brachycephalic  region,  the  Palae- 
Alpine  type  being  dominant  in  the  southwest,  while  the  Alpine 
is  preponderant  in  the  northeast  and  east.  The  whole  of  the  Po 
valley  is  overwhelmingly  Alpine,  and  of  the  long-headed  northern 
invaders  and  settlers  there  is  hardly  a trace.  The  effect  thus 
upon  the  racial  character  of  western  and  central  Europe  of  the 


INTRODUCTION 


39 


great  outpouring  of  “Nordic”  peoples  during  the  Volkerwande- 
rung  had  been  of  the  slightest.  As  raiders,  conquerors,  and  rulers 
their  political  and  cultural  influence  was  often  great  and  endur- 
ing; only  rarely,  however,  did  any  factor  of  their  racial  features 
survive. 

But  what  of  the  Baltic  lands  and  western  Russia,  into  which 
had  poured  the  dolichocephalic  Slavic-speaking  peoples?  The 
story  here  is  essentially  the  same,  for  the  dolichocephalic  immi- 
grants rapidly  disappeared.  By  the  seventeenth  century  Bo- 
hemia, the  eastern  Baltic  region,  and  western  Russia  were  com- 
pletely brachycephalized,  and  the  long-headed  factors  survived 
only  as  a minority  in  a population  in  the  main  of  Alpine  type. 

The  last  of  the  great  racial  movements  is  that  of  the  Mongol- 
Tatar  invasions  in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  hordes  which 
swept  so  irresistibly  across  the  Russian  plains  to  the  gates  of 
central  Europe  were  in  the  main  brachy cephalic,  yet  except  in 
the  south  of  Russia  it  may  be  doubted  if  their  coming  exerted 
any  appreciable  effect  so  far  as  racial  questions  are  concerned. 
Although  they  ravaged  and  pillaged  the  heart  of  Russia  and 
held  the  Russian  princes  tributary  for  two  centuries,  there  seems 
to  have  been  no  real  occupation  of  the  country  except  in  the 
south.  There,  however,  the  influence  of  these  Asiatic  brachy- 
cephals  can  be  clearly  traced,  and  there  and  in  the  region  east  of 
the  Volga  large  bodies  of  Tatars  are  still  to  be  found. 

What  is  the  outcome  to-day  of  the  fifty  or  more  thousand 
years  of  migrations  and  minglings  which  we  have  tried  to  sketch  ? 
What  is  the  picture  which  modern  Europe  presents  to  the  stu- 
dent? The  outstanding  racial  characteristic  of  the  Europe  of 
to-day  is  the  dominance  of  the  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  types. 
Except  for  portions  of  southern  Scandinavia,  the  western  Baltic 
lands  and  shores  of  the  North  Sea,  the  British  Isles,  the  Iberian 
peninsula,  Corsica,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  and  southern  Italy,  together 
with  small  areas  in  west-central  France  and  southeastern  Russia, 
the  whole  continent  is  dominated  by  brachycephalic  types,  which 
are  thus  central,  whereas  the  dolichocephalic  types  are  mainly 
marginal.  If  we  compare  this  present  situation  with  the  con- 


40 


EUROPE 


ditions  in  Neolithic  times  and  in  the  period  between  the  sixth 
and  twelfth  centuries,  the  vast  expansion  of  the  brachycephahc 
peoples,  mainly  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine,  becomes  apparent. 
The  narrow  wedge  thrust  in  earliest  times  along  the  Highlands 
from  Asia  Minor  to  the  North  Sea  has  expanded  until  its  base 
extends  from  the  Arctic  to  the  Caucasus,  while  in  the  west  it  has 
broadened  in  every  direction  toward  the  sea.  Of  primarily 
dolichocephalic  peoples  hardly  a trace  is  left;  the  brachycephali- 
zation  of  Europe  is  nearly  complete.  From  the  racial  stand- 
point the  history  of  the  continent  during  the  last  10,000  or 
15,000  years  may  be  summed  up  as  a contest  between  the  older 
longheads  and  the  later  roundheads,  and  in  the  contest  it  has 
been  the  latter  who  have  won ! 

"What  has  been  the  fate  of  the  vanquished?  The  Proto- 
Australoids  survive  only  as  remnants  in  a few  isolated  marginal 
areas.  In  Tras  os  Montes  and  Beira  Alta  in  northern  Portugal, 
in  the  province  of  Teruel  on  the  Levantine  Coast  of  Spain,  in  the 
Dordogne  and  the  western  edge  of  the  Massif  Central  in  France, 
in  western  Wales  and  perhaps  in  Ireland,  in  Sardinia  and  in  the 
“toe”  of  Italy  occasional  individuals  or  even  small  groups,  such 
as  in  the  Plynlymmon  district  in  Wales,  may  be  found  which  still 
exhibit  the  characteristic  features  of  this  type.  The  Proto- 
Negroid  type  has  shared  the  fate  of  the  Proto- Australoids,  and 
its  only  recognizable  remnants  are  found  in  marginal  areas,  usu- 
ally in  company  with  the  latter.  Its  survival  has  recently  been 
noted  by  Giuffrida  Ruggeri,  who  calls  it  Proto-Ethiopian.  The 
Caspian  type  survives  apparently  in  little  greater  numbers  than 
these  older  forms,  and  for  the  most  part  has  melted  into  the 
complex  of  the  “Nordic”  peoples.  Here  and  there,  however, 
strong  elements  survive,  as  in  northern  Portugal,  where  they 
may  be  the  descendants  of  the  Vandal  and  Suevi,  in  southeastern 
Scotland  and  northeastern  England,  and  in  Scandinavia.  The 
strongest  representation  of  this  type  to-day  is  probably  to  be 
found  in  Russia,  among  both  the  Russian  and  Finnic  population 
west  of  the  middle  Volga. 

The  Mediterranean  type  is  the  only  one  of  dolichocephalic 


INTRODUCTION 


41 


character  still  existing  in  Europe  in  any  considerable  numbers. 
It  seems  still  to  form  the  underlying  stratum  of  the  population 
of  the  Iberian  peninsula,  being  especially  strong  in  central  and 
southern  Portugal,  and  in  Catalonia  and  Aragon;  in  France  it 
forms  a minority  in  the  coastal  population  of  Languedoc  and 
possibly,  also,  in  the  Dordogne  and  Limousine.  In  the  British 
Isles  it  probably  forms  the  major  element  in  Ireland,  southeast- 
ern England,  and  southwestern  Scotland,  and  is  perhaps  repre- 
sented in  some  measure  in  the  more  dolichocephalic  portions  of 
the  brunet  population  of  Denmark  and  western  Norway.  In 
Sardinia  (Corsica?)  and  Sicily  and  in  the  southern  third  of  the 
Italian  peninsula  it  is  present  in  large  proportion. 

Turning  to  the  victors,  we  find  the  Alpine  type  to  be  not 
only  the  dominant  one  in  modern  Europe,  but  to  be  found  in 
greater  purity  than  any  other  in  the  continent.  In  France,  ex- 
cept in  the  Haut  Morvan  and  probably  in  the  more  rugged  and 
isolated  portions  of  Brittany  and  the  Massif  Central,  it  is  the 
dominant  factor.  The  same  is  true  apparently  for  almost  the 
whole  of  the  Central  European  Highland,  only  the  Canton  of 
Vaud,  the  Pusterthal,  and  the  marginal  area  in  the  north  show- 
ing a parity  between  this  type  and  the  Palae-Alpine.  It  domi- 
nates overwhelmingly  the  whole  basin  of  the  Po  and  extends 
southward  beyond  Umbria,  but  attains  its  greatest  purity  and 
preponderance  apparently  in  the  northern  Balkans.  Northward 
it  stretches  through  Baden  and  Wurtemberg  and  the  Rhine  val- 
ley to  the  North  Sea,  while  toward  the  northeast  it  seems,  on  the 
basis  of  very  meagre  data,  to  sweep  over  the  larger  part  of  Rus- 
sia and  Finland.  There  is,  however,  a notable  difference  in 
pigmentation  between  the  Alpine  peoples  of  the  Balkans,  Switzer- 
land, and  France,  on  the  one  hand,  and  those  of  the  North  Sea 
and  Baltic  regions,  together  with  western  and  central  Russia,  in 
that  whereas  the  former  are  normally  brunet  in  color  of  eyes  and 
hair  at  least,  the  latter  are  increasingly  blond,  until  in  Finland 
the  percentage  of  blonds  equals  or  surpasses  that  among  the 
dolichocephalic,  Baltic  “ Nordics.”  Detailed  discussion  of  this 
striking  difference  must  be  deferred  to  the  final  chapter,  but  the 


42 


EUROPE 


conclusions  there  reached  may  be  anticipated  by  saying  that  it 
is  believed  to  be  due  in  part  to  the  special  and  peculiar  effect 
which  the  Baltic  environment  has  had  upon  all  peoples  who 
have  come  for  long  under  its  influence,  and  in  part  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Caspian  type. 

The  distribution  of  the  Palae-Alpine  type  in  Europe  to-day 
is  significant  and  in  keeping  with  the  outline  of  the  racial  history 
of  the  continent  here  proposed.  This  type,  which  historically 
preceded  the  Alpine  type  in  its  entrance  into  Europe,  although 
still  strongly  represented  throughout  the  core  of  the  great  brachy- 
cephalic  wedge,  is  nevertheless  dominated  and  outnumbered  by 
the  Alpine.  Toward  the  margins  of  much  of  the  brachycephalic 
area,  however,  the  proportions  are  reversed.  In  Istria  on  the 
south,  in  the  region  of  the  lower  Inn  and  the  Canton  of  Vaud 
on  the  north,  and  in  the  Haut  Morvan  in  France,  the  chief  brachy- 
cephalic factor  is  of  the  Palae-Alpine  type.  Throughout  much 
of  western  Europe  the  Pake- Alpine  gives  the  impression  of  a par- 
tially submerged  type,  and  if  we  had  sufficiently  abundant  and 
detailed  data  for  the  whole  of  Switzerland,  it  is  probable  that 
islands  of  this  type  would  be  found  lingering  in  the  more  isolated 
and  unfavorable  regions. 

The  part  played  by  the  Mongoloid  type  in  the  European 
continent  has,  on  the  whole,  been  small.  Traceable  apparently 
in  earliest  Palaeolithic  times  in  Spain,  France,  and  Belgium,  it  is 
found  in  the  Neolithic  period  feebly  represented  in  Switzerland 
and  Italy.  In  the  early  Middle  Ages  it  seems  to  be  somewhat 
more  widely  spread,  since  we  find  evidence  of  it  on  the  North 
Sea  coasts  and  along  the  Baltic  as  well  as  in  southwestern  Rus- 
sia. In  modern  times  it  appears  to  contribute  a moderately  im- 
portant factor  to  the  populations  of  Switzerland,  eastern  France, 
and  northern  Italy ; it  does  not,  however,  extend  into  the  Balkan 
region.  It  was  present  in  the  fifteenth  century  in  Norway,  and 
is  found  at  present  in  the  Sogne  and  Trondhjem  districts.  Fi- 
nally, it  is  a considerable  element  in  the  Bashkir  of  eastern 
Russia,  is  probably  to  be  found  among  the  Finns,  and  is  the 
dominant  factor  among  the  Norwegian  Lapps,  although  much 


INTRODUCTION 


43 


less  important  among  those  in  Sweden  and  northern  Russia. 
The  data  are  too  meagre  for  more  than  a guess  at  the  history  of 
this  type  in  Europe,  but  suggest  that  it  may  have  been  the  fore- 
runner of  the  Palae-Alpine  type,  and  have  also  come  in  large 
part  with  it,  from  its  clearly  defined  centre  on  the  northern  bor- 
der of  the  Asiatic  plateaus.  It  is  tempting  to  regard  it  as  reach- 
ing the  Scandinavian  peninsula  very  early,  and  as  being  the 
vaguely  discernible  brachy cephalic  type  driven  northward  by 
the  later  predominantly  dolichocephalic  population. 

The  last  of  the  eight  types,  and  one  which,  like  the  preced- 
ing, has  played  a somewhat  uncertain  and  minor  part,  is  the 
Ural.  Its  origin  and  affiliations  are  the  most  obscure  of  all. 
Until  the  Middle  Ages  it  does  not  appear  anywhere,  except  as  a 
faint  trace,  and  that  mainly  in  Switzerland  and  the  North  Sea 
and  western  Baltic  areas.  In  the  seventh  century  it  is  of  some 
importance  in  Volhynia  in  western  Russia,  and  in  the  later  Mid- 
dle Ages  increases  in  strength  in  the  regions  where  its  presence 
was  noted  above.  In  modern  times  it  is  chiefly  to  be  found  in 
northern  Italy,  among  the  Germans  of  Upper  Austria,  in  the 
Morvan  and  Aveyron  districts  in  France,  in  eastern  Scotland,  in 
the  Jaederen  district  of  southeastern  Norway,  and  especially 
among  the  Voguls  and  Samoyeds  of  the  northeast  of  Russia.  Its 
late  appearance,  together  with  its  absence  in  the  whole  Balkan 
region,  and  concentration  along  the  Asiatic  frontier,  suggest  that 
its  coming  into  western  and  central  Europe  may  in  some  way  be 
connected  with  the  drifts  of  Asiatic  peoples  beginning  at  the 
time  of  the  Volkerwanderung. 

The  fact  of  the  increasing  and  now  all  but  complete  domi- 
nance in  Europe  of  the  brachycephalic  types  has  been  noted;  it 
remains  to  consider  the  process  by  which  this  has  been  accom- 
plished. During  the  prehistoric  period  and  up  to  the  end  of  the 
Middle  Ages  the  penetration  of  the  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  types 
into  Europe  and  their  spread  therein  may  in  large  part  be  ac- 
counted for  on  the  basis  of  migration  on  a large  scale.  But  the 
spread  of  the  roundheads  at  the  expense  of  the  longheads  did 
not  cease  with  the  close  of  the  period  of  migration,  and  has  con- 


44 


EUROPE 


tinued  apparently  without  abatement  to  the  present  time.  In 
some  cases,  as  in  eastern  Europe,  the  expansion  of  brachy cephalic 
populations  has,  although  slow,  been  nevertheless  a visible  and 
recorded  movement.  In  central  and  western  Europe,  however, 
no  such  perceptible  colonization  has  occurred,  and  the  spread  of 
the  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  types  must  be  explained  in  some 
other  way.  Several  influences  seem  to  be  responsible.  During 
the  period  of  religious  persecution  at  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion large  numbers  of  people,  predominantly  of  brachycephalic 
types,  fled  or  were  driven  from  their  homes  to  areas  which  were 
in  general  still  strongly  dolichocephalic.  As  examples  of  such 
movements,  those  from  Bohemia  and  Moravia  to  Germany,  that 
of  the  Flemish  weavers  to  England,  and  the  dispersal  of  the 
Huguenots  may  be  mentioned. 

Yet  such  movements  alone  would  not  suffice  to  account  for 
the  great  extent  of  the  change,  the  larger  part  of  which  must 
probably  be  ascribed  to  slow  and  unrecorded  drifts,  due  pri- 
marily to  economic  and  political  causes.  The  influence  of  the 
former  has,  it  need  hardly  be  said,  been  greatly  intensified  dur- 
ing the  last  half  century,  owing  to  the  industrial  transformation. 
In  France,  for  example,  Paris  has  long  been  a magnet  drawing 
population  from  the  provinces  to  an  area  in  which  the  dolicho- 
cephalic elements  had  been  relatively  strong;  and  the  industrial 
development  of  the  north  of  France  has,  in  the  last  two  genera- 
tions, attracted  laborers  from  other  portions  of  the  country. 
The  unification  of  Germany  and  the  growth  of  Berlin  as  a great 
capital  have  brought  an  influx  of  brachycephalic  population 
from  the  south  and  east  into  one  of  the  strongholds  of  the  “Nor- 
dic” blends;  and  the  great  industrial  development  of  the  Ruhr 
and  Rhine  valley  as  a whole  has  brought  thousands  of  Slavs 
from  Poland  and  the  east  within  the  last  generation.  This  in- 
crease in  the  brachycephalic  factors  in  areas  formerly  more  or 
less  strongly  dolichocephalic,  is  independent  of  the  fact  that 
with  the  rapid  growth  of  great  cities  there  seems  to  be  a ten- 
dency toward  a differentiation  between  the  urban  and  the  rural 
population,  such  that  there  is  a relative  concentration  in  the 


INTRODUCTION 


45 


former  of  dolichocephalic  factors.  In  the  final  chapter  still 
other  possible  causes  for  this  progressive  brachycephalization 
will  be  discussed. 

Slowly,  and  in  recent  times  insensibly,  the  Palae-Alpines  and 
Alpines  have  thus  pressed  into  the  lands  still  held  by  their  Cas- 
pian and  Mediterranean  predecessors,  until  the  heritage  of  these 
older  European  peoples  has  shrunk  to  but  a fraction  of  its  for- 
mer size.  And  not  in  Europe  alone  has  this  dominance  of  the 
roundheads  been  increasing,  for  we  shall  find  it  to  be  a well- 
nigh  universal  phenomenon.  The  spheres  of  the  “Nordic”  blend 
and  of  the  Mediterranean  type  alike  have  been  steadily  de- 
creasing; is  there  any  reason  to  doubt  but  that  the  process  will 
continue?  The  Great  War,  with  its  legacies  of  hatred,  its  in- 
tensification of  nationality,  and  its  multiplication  and  strength- 
ening of  frontiers,  may  retard  the  change,  but  the  process  begun 
so  many  thousands  of  years  ago  can  hardly  have  reached  its  end. 


CHAPTER  I 


FRANCE  AND  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 
I.  France 

The  geographical  features  whose  influence  may  be  clearly 
traced  as  affecting  and  in  considerable  measure  determining  the 
racial  history  of  France,  are  such  as  may  be  easily  and  briefly 
described.  France  comprises  three  fertile  lowland  areas  and  one 
central  and  four  marginal  highland  or  mountainous  areas.  As 
lowlands  are  to  be  reckoned  the  basins  of  Paris  (drained  mainly 
by  the  Seine)  and  of  Aquitaine  (drained  by  the  Garonne)  and 
the  deep  north-and-south  depression  formed  by  the  valleys  of 
the  Saone  and  Rhone.  The  central  highland  or  Massif  Central 
rises  in  the  midst  of  these  lowlands  as  a rugged,  volcanic,  and 
rather  infertile  region,  presenting  its  steeper  slopes  toward  the 
south  and  east.  South  of  the  basin  of  Aquitaine  and  extending 
east  and  west  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Atlantic  lies  the 
great  wall  of  the  Pyrenees;  east  of  the  Saone-Rhone  depression, 
the  French  Alps  and  the  Jura  mark  the  edges  of  the  mountain 
highland  of  Central  Europe,  whose  lower  northwestern  exten- 
sions in  the  Vosges  and  the  Ardennes  limit  in  some  measure  the 
Paris  basin  toward  the  north  and  east.  Lastly,  in  Brittany  we 
have  a moderately  rugged  highland,  and  one  which  by  its  penin- 
sular character  is  to  some  extent  isolated  from  the  rest  of  France. 

The  numerous  discoveries  of  early  human  remains  made  in 
France  during  the  last  fifty  years  place  us  in  a position  to  dis- 
cuss with  some  certainty  the  characteristics  of  the  ancient  popu- 
lation of  the  Dordogne  and  the  Mediterranean  shore  as  far  back 
as  Mousterian  times.  At  this  period,  which  marks  the  end  of 
the  early  Palaeolithic  age,  the  climate  of  France  was  cold,  and 
the  tropical  or  semi-tropical  fauna  and  flora  of  the  previous 
period  had  retreated  into  Africa  (with  which  continent  land  con- 

46 


FRANCE  AND  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 


47 


nection  by  way  of  Spain  and  Italy  still  existed),  their  places 
being  taken  by  arctic  species. 

In  the  caves  and  rock-shelters  of  Le  Moustier,  La  Chapelle- 
aux-Saintes,  and  of  La  Quina  in  Dordogne  and  Perigord,  three 
skeletons  have  been  discovered  which  reveal  this  earliest  known 
population  to  have  been  one  of  short  stature  (ca.  160  cm.),  with 
a low,  dolichocephalic  skull  and  a broad  nose,  representing  thus 
on  the  basis  of  the  scheme  and  terminology  here  adopted  the 
Proto-Australoid  type.  The  Chapelle-aux-Saintes  cranium  lies 
just  on  the  border  line  of  mesocephaly,  and  suggests  that  already 
a faint  brachycephalic  influence,  apparently  of  the  Mongoloid 
type,  had  begun  to  make  itself  felt. 

In  the  following,  or  Aurignacian  period,  although  the  animal 
life  continues  without  much  modification,  the  human  types  un- 
derwent an  important  change.  We  possess  remains  of  this 
period  from  two  sites,  Cro  Magnon  and  Combe  Capelle  in  the 
Dordogne  and  Perigord,  and  also  from  the  Grimaldi  caves  at 
Mentone.  The  type  shown  by  these  is  clearly  the  Mediterra- 
nean, with,  in  the  case  of  Combe  Capelle,  some  admixture  with 
the  Caspian  type,  which  only  appears  in  purity  in  the  later 
Magdalenian  period.  From  the  wide  distribution  of  the  typical 
industry  of  the  Aurignacian  period  along  the  shores  of  the  Med- 
iterranean it  seems  most  probable  that  this  new  type  of  man 
came  into  France  from  the  south. 

The  close  of  the  Palaeolithic  age  saw  the  appearance  of  the 
third  dolichocephalic  type,  the  Caspian  already  referred  to 
above.  The  single  example  so  far  known  comes  from  Chance- 
lade,  again  in  the  Dordogne,  where,  however,  the  Mediterranean 
type  was  still  strongly  represented  as  shown  by  the  finds  at 
Laugerie  Basse.  In  contrast  to  the  Mediterranean,  the  Caspian 
type  probably  came  into  France  through  Germany,  where  its 
presence  at  the  close  of  the  Palaeolithic  period  is  well  established. 

The  advent  of  the  Neolithic  period  reveals  a far-reaching 
change  in  the  human  types  present  in  France,  changes  which 
are  associated  with  a striking  development  of  culture,  and  un- 
doubtedly with  a large  increase  of  population.  The  Palaeolithic 


48 


EUROPE 


types  were  almost  exclusively  dolichocephalic;  the  succeeding 
period  shows  these  still  in  the  majority,  but  to  a considerable 
extent  blended  with  brachycephalic  forms,  which  for  the  first 
time  appear  clearly  as  such.  The  scanty  remains  of  the  Palaeo- 
lithic population  have  so  far  been  found  only  along  the  western 
margin  of  the  Massif  Central  and  on  the  Mediterranean  shore; 
the  much  more  abundant  remains  of  the  Neolithic  age  are  more 
widely  scattered.  Many  hundreds  of  crania  have  been  exca- 
vated from  these  sites,  but  for  the  most  part  their  measurements 
have  been  published  only  as  averages,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to 
analyze  the  material  on  the  plan  adopted  in  the  present  study. 
We  can  therefore  only  consider  the  distribution  of  the  average 
cranial  index,  and  then  endeavor  to  supplement  this  with  such 
additional  information  as  can  be  secured  from  the  relatively 
small  number  of  crania  whose  measurements  have  been  pub- 
lished in  full. 

Of  the  nearly  700  Neolithic  crania  whose  indices  have  been 
compiled  by  Salmon,1  in  round  numbers  about  60  per  cent  are 
dolichocephalic  and  20  per  cent  mesocephalic  and  brachycephal- 
ic respectively.  Although  for  France  as  a whole  the  dolicho- 
cephalic types  are  in  considerable  majority,  striking  differences 
in  the  proportions  are  apparent  as  soon  as  we  divide  the  material 
on  a geographic  basis,  grouping  together  the  crania  from  (1)  the 
Paris  basin,  (2)  Brittany,  and  (3)  the  Massif  Central.  In  round 
numbers  the  relative  percentages  of  the  three  divisions  of  the 
cranial  index  are  found  to  be  as  follows: 


Dolichocephalic 

Mesocephalic 

Brachycephalic 

Paris  Basin 

32% 

43% 

25% 

Brittany 

53% 

27% 

20% 

Massif  Central 

64% 

29% 

7% 

From  this  table  it  is  clear  that  while  in  the  Massif  Central 
and  Brittany  dolichocephalic  types  are  in  the  majority,  in  the 
Paris  basin  this  is  by  no  means  the  case,  brachycephalic  types 


'Salmon,  1895. 


FRANCE  AND  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 


49 


being  almost  as  frequent.  From  this  it  would  seem  that  we 
were  entitled  to  draw  the  conclusion  that  in  the  Massif  Central 
the  dolichocephalic  types  which  had  characterized  the  Dor- 
dogne throughout  the  Palaeolithic  period  had  persisted,  but  that 
a large  element  of  brachycephalic  peoples  had  come  into  the 
Paris  basin.  Brittany  also  had  received  a considerable  share  of 
the  newcomers,  but  had  not  been  modified  so  largely  as  the 
adjacent  lowland  toward  the  east. 

That  in  large  part  these  round-headed  immigrants  must  have 
come  from  the  eastward  seems  to  be  shown  by  the  following 
facts:  The  Neolithic  sites  in  the  region  of  the  so-called  “Sad- 
dle of  Poitiers,”  between  the  basins  of  Aquitaine  and  Paris, 
show  60  per  cent  of  dolichocephalic  crania  and  no  brachy- 
cephalic at  all;  the  sites  in  the  department  of  Saone-et-Loire, 
which  lies  largely  in  the  northern  end  of  the  Saone-Rhone  de- 
pression, show,  on  the  other  hand,  an  even  higher  percentage  of 
round-headed  crania  than  the  Paris  basin;  lastly,  the  crania  from 
the  departments  of  Isere,  Drome,  and  Vaucluse,  along  the  east- 
ward side  of  the  Rhone  valley  and  including  portions  of  the 
French  Alps,  show  a proportion  of  brachycephaly  more  than 
double  that  of  any  other  part  of  France.  The  same  results  ap- 
pear if  we  consider  the  Paris  basin  by  itself  in  detail,  for  here  the 
central  departments  of  Oise  and  Seine-et-Oise  show  approximately 
27  per  cent  of  brachycephalic  crania,  while  Marne,  farther  east, 
has  35  per  cent,  and  Meuse,  still  farther  eastward,  rises  to  42 
per  cent. 

When  an  attempt  is  made  to  determine  the  types  represented 
by  these  round  and  long-headed  crania,  the  task  is  made  almost 
hopeless  by  the  scantiness  of  the  available  data,  most  of  which, 
furthermore,  comes  only  from  the  Paris  basin.  On  the  basis  of 
this  material,  however,  it  would  appear  that  in  the  central  and 
eastern  portion  of  the  Paris  basin  three  dolichocephalic  types 
are  found.  The  most  important  in  numbers  is  the  Mediterra- 
nean, that  of  minor  consequence  the  Caspian,  while  at  one  sin- 
gle site,  that  of  the  Grotte  de  Cougy,  these  types  are  almost 
absent,  and  in  their  stead  we  find  a large  Proto-Negroid  element, 


50 


EUROPE 


with  a trace  of  the  Proto-Australoid,  i.  e.,  the  older  rather  than 
the  later  Palaeolithic  forms.  The  brachycephalic  types  present 
throughout  are  the  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine,  of  which  the  former 
is  in  the  majority.  In  the  south,  in  Aveyron  and  Lozere,  on 
the  southern  borders  of  the  Massif  Central,  the  conditions  seem 
to  have  been  very  much  like  those  prevailing  in  the  whole  Paris 
basin,  with  the  Mediterranean  type  in  the  majority,  and  the 
Alpine  the  most  strongly  represented  of  the  brachycephalic 
forms.  That  here,  also,  the  ancient  Palaeolithic  types  were  not 
by  any  means  extinct,  seems  to  be  indicated  by  the  crania  from 
Sargels  on  the  plateau  of  Larzac. 

Generalizing  from  these  facts,  the  racial  history  of  France 
during  Neolithic  times  may  be  assumed  to  have  been  something 
as  follows.  The  latter  part  of  the  Palaeolithic  period  saw  the 
appearance  of  two  new  types,  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Cas- 
pian. With  the  beginning  of  the  Neolithic  period  a flood  of  the 
former  types  swept  over  western  France  from  the  south,  passing 
along  the  western  borders  of  the  Massif  Central  and  by  the 
“ Saddle  of  Poitiers”  into  the  Paris  basin.  It  is  probable  that  a 
second  stream  followed  up  the  coast  from  Spain.  In  the  central 
area  these  Mediterranean  immigrants  met  and  largely  absorbed 
what  survived  of  the  older  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid 
types,  although  a considerable  body  of  these  were  apparently 
driven  before  the  advancing  southerners,  toward  the  North  Sea 
and  the  Baltic.  Somewhat  later,  perhaps,  a wave  of  Caspian 
peoples  streamed  across  the  Rhine  valley,  and  entered  France 
from  the  northeast,  contending  with  the  Mediterranean  immi- 
grants for  the  control  of  the  Paris  basin.  These  northern  dol- 
ichocephalic peoples,  who  were  the  forerunners  of  the  later 
Teutonic  invaders,  may  possibly  be  one  with  the  so-called  Ma- 
gelmoos  peoples,  whose  cultural  remains  are  known  from  Den- 
mark and  the  Baltic  shores,  who  are  thought  to  be  contempora- 
neous there  with  the  very  end  of  the  Palaeolithic  period  in  south- 
ern France,  and  whom  Breuil1  believes  to  be  of  Central  Asiatic 
origin.  Coincidently  with  these  movements  of  the  two  dolicho- 

1 Breuil,  1912,  p.  235  sq. 


FRANCE  AND  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 


51 


cephalic  groups,  we  may  postulate  a westward  drift  of  the  brach- 
ycephalic  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  types,  which,  passing  by  way 
of  the  Central  European  Highlands,  poured  into  the  Paris  ba- 
sin around  the  northern  end  of  the  Vosges,  and  into  the  Saone- 
Rhone  depression  by  way  of  the  Gap  of  Belfort,  between  the 
Vosges  and  the  Jura,  as  well  as  down  the  upper  Rhone  valley 
from  Lake  Geneva  and  the  broad  lowlands  lying  between  the 
Jura  and  the  Alps.  Of  the  two  brachycephalic  types,  the  Palae- 
Alpine  seems  to  have  been  the  earlier,  and  its  presence  at  this 
period  in  the  Ardennes  plateau  and  in  Britain  will  be  noted  else- 
where. The  Alpine  type,  which  was  in  the  majority  at  least  in 
the  Paris  basin,  seems  not  to  have  reached  either  Belgium  or 
Britain  in  any  numbers  until  the  close  of  the  Neolithic  period. 
The  brachycephalic  elements  in  Brittany  may  be  ascribed  in 
part  to  a sea-borne  branch  of  Alpines,  whose  importance  was 
greater,  perhaps,  in  other  portions  of  Europe. 

For  the  long  period  lying  between  the  end  of  the  Neolithic 
period  (which  may  be  put  for  France  roughly  at  about  2000 
B.  C.)  and  the  coming  of  the  Teutonic  migrations  in  the  fifth 
century  A.  D.  we  have  little  in  the  way  of  adequate  data  which 
enable  us  to  follow  the  racial  changes  in  this  area.  Culturally 
the  materials  are  abundant,  and  we  can  trace  the  beginnings  of 
the  metal  industry  and  follow  the  long  development  of  the 
Bronze  Age  and  of  the  introduction  of  the  use  of  iron.  But  of 
skeletal  remains  we  possess  a surprisingly  small  supply.  This  is 
in  considerable  part  due  to  the  prevalence  of  the  custom  of  cre- 
mation. 

Leaning,  as  we  must,  then,  largely  on  archaeological  and  later 
historical  data,  we  may  attempt  to  bridge  the  long  gap  some- 
what as  follows.  The  drift  of  brachycephalic  Palae-Alpine  and 
Alpine  peoples  into  France,  which  began  to  be  important  as  early 
at  least  as  the  middle  of  the  Neolithic  period,  continued  to  gain 
in  strength,  and  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  millennium 
B.  C.  new  waves  of  these  peoples  brought  with  them  the  knowl- 
edge and  use  of  bronze,  which  spread  in  the  course  of  the  next 
four  or  five  centuries  over  the  whole  of  France.  We  are  forced 


52 


EUROPE 


to  assume,  I believe,  that  the  spread  of  the  bronze  culture  in- 
volved also  a considerable  and  continued  influx  of  Alpine  peo- 
ples, and  that  the  older,  largely  dolichocephalic  population  was 
everywhere  gradually  conquered  and  assimilated,  except  in  the 
heart  of  the  Massif  Central,  by  the  newcomers. 

The  problem  of  the  connection  between  the  origin  and  spread 
of  bronze  culture  in  France  and  the  influx  of  new  racial  elements 
is  difficult  and  still  very  obscure.  The  Bronze  Age  in  France  is 
subdivided  by  Dechelette1  into  four  periods.  The  sites  belong- 
ing to  the  first  are  very  few,  and  are,  with  hardly  an  exception, 
confined  to  the  Atlantic  coast  of  southern  Brittany.  The  second 
period  is  developed  mainly  in  Brittany,  and  it  is  not  until  the 
third  that  the  sites  become  even  moderately  numerous  in  east- 
ern France,  where  they  become  abundant  in  the  northeastern 
portion  of  the  Paris  basin,  and  also  cluster  in  the  region  of  the 
Jura  and  the  areas  adjacent  to  the  upper  Rhone  valley.  In  the 
fourth  period  Brittany  again  assumes  predominance,  nearly  60 
per  cent  of  the  known  sites  being  confined  to  the  peninsula. 
Bronze  culture  was  thus  primarily  littoral  in  its  distribution,  and 
the  Gironde  and  especially  Brittany  were  the  main  foci  whence 
its  influence  spread.  The  eastern  area  unquestionably,  how- 
ever, received  a strong  influence  from  central  Europe  by  way  of 
the  Rhone  valley,  due,  we  may  believe,  to  a continuation  of  the 
Neolithic  drift  of  Alpine  peoples,  who  served  as  bringers  of  the 
culture.  Are  we,  however,  entitled  to  ascribe  its  spread  along 
the  Atlantic  and  Channel  coasts  to  a wave  of  immigrants  spread- 
ing northward  from  Spain?  All  things  considered,  it  would 
seem  that  we  are,  but  that  this  drift,  while  of  great  significance 
in  the  spread  of  bronze  culture,  was  of  rather  less  importance  as 
influencing  the  racial  characters  of  the  population. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  Bronze  period,  perhaps  largely  as  a 
result  of  the  trade  in  amber  which  had  developed  with  Den- 
mark and  the  Baltic  region,  a conquering  wave  of  hardy  Baltic 
peoples  came  into  northeastern  and  central  France,  repeating  the 
much  earlier  movement  of  the  same  sort  which,  it  is  suggested, 

1 Dechelette,  1910. 


FRANCE  AND  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 


53 


occurred  at  the  close  of  the  Palaeolithic  age.  Since  the  Bronze 
Age  population  of  Denmark,  at  least,  was  in  large  measure 
brachycephalic,  we  are  justified  in  believing  that  this  Baltic  in- 
vasion of  France  at  this  time  was  not  wholly  made  up  of  dol- 
ichocephalic types,  so  that  no  very  great  change  would  have 
resulted  among  the  French  population. 

In  the  early  centuries  of  the  first  millennium  B.  C.  bronze  was 
superseded  by  iron.  The  knowledge  and  use  of  the  metal  spread 
from  the  east  over  the  whole  of  France.  How  far  we  are  en- 
titled to  associate  with  the  introduction  of  this  new  culture  a 
further  immigration  is  not  wholly  clear,  but  from  the  analogy  of 
the  invasions  which  follow  in  the  later  Iron  Age,  it  is  probable 
that  considerable  increments  of  central  European  peoples  came 
in  the  beginning  with  iron  into  France. 

Of  the  physical  characters  of  these  bringers  of  iron  we  know 
little;  it  seems  probable,  however,  that  they  were  far  from  uni- 
form. In  Franche-Comte  and  parts  of  Burgundy  the  graves 
of  this  period  reveal  a brachycephalic  population  of  short  stat- 
ure, whereas  farther  north,  in  the  Vosges  and  Lorraine,  there  is 
an  equally  strong  preponderance  of  tall,  dolichocephalic  types. 
These  conditions  would  appear  to  indicate  that  the  westward 
drift  of  brachycephalic  types  which,  from  early  Neolithic  times 
at  least,  had  been  coming  into  France  through  Belfort  and  the 
upper  Rhone  valley,  continued  throughout  the  Iron  Age;  and 
that  tall,  dolichocephalic  types  from  Germany  were  beginning 
to  swarm  across  the  Rhine  as  the  advance  guard  of  the  great 
Frankish  and  Burgundian  conquests  which  were  to  break  through 
the  frontiers  some  ten  centuries  later. 

The  second,  or  La  Tene,  period  of  the  Iron  Age,  which  in 
France  is  thought  to  have  begun  about  the  sixth  century  B.  C., 
was  coincident  with  the  last  clearly  defined  wave  of  brachy- 
cephalic peoples,  that  of  the  great  expansion  of  the  Gauls  and 
other  Celtic  tribes.  Spreading  apparently  from  southern  Ger- 
many and  the  northern  borders  of  the  Central  European  High- 
lands, they  overran  in  the  next  two  or  three  hundred  years  not 
only  France  and  Spain,  but  also  northern  Italy  and  the  Danube 


54 


EUROPE 


valley  as  far  as  the  Black  Sea  and  beyond.  While  predomi- 
nantly composed  of  a mixture  of  the  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine 
types,  this  wave  of  Celtic  peoples  undoubtedly  included  some  of 
the  tall  “Nordic”  blends,  who  already  were  pushing  south  and 
west  from  their  breeding-grounds  along  the  Baltic. 

If  this  interpretation  of  the  archaeologic  record  is  correct,  we 
must  regard  the  long  period  extending  from  the  end  of  Neolithic 
times  to  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  as  one  during  which 
the  racial  characteristics  of  France  underwent  a complete  change. 
We  leave  it  in  Neolithic  times  with  a predominantly  dolicho- 
cephalic population,  primarily  of  Mediterranean  type,  into  which 
brachycephalic  influences  of  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  types  had 
begun  to  penetrate  in  the  north  and  east;  we  find  it  in  Roman 
times  apparently  strongly  brachycephalic,  with  the  older  types 
surviving  in  any  considerable  degree  probably  only  in  the  south 
and  perhaps  in  parts  of  the  western  Massif  Central.  It  may  be 
objected  to  this  view  of  the  brachycephalization  of  France  dur- 
ing the  Bronze  and  Iron  Ages  that  the  skeletal  data  are  quite 
inadequate  to  prove  it;  that  the  cultural  revolution  by  no  means 
necessarily  implies  the  coming  of  large  numbers  of  immigrants; 
and  that  the  brachycephalic  Bronze  Age  invaders  of  Britain  did 
not  succeed  in  permanently  altering  the  physical  type  in  the 
British  Isles.  All  this  may  be  granted,  but  in  view  of  the  his- 
tory of  events  in  central  and  southern  Europe  during  this  time, 
of  the  subsequent  history  of  France  itself,  and  of  the  present-day 
composition  of  its  population,  the  foregoing  hypothesis  seems  the 
only  one  which  fits  the  facts. 

In  the  second  century  B.  C.,  during  the  early  period  of 
Roman  rule,  a southward  movement  of  “Nordic”  tribes  began. 
For  the  time  being  it  was  checked  by  the  Romans,  and,  except 
as  it  had  some  influence  in  the  Paris  basin,  seems  to  have  had 
no  further  effect.  The  Roman  occupation  itself,  although  it 
lasted  for  several  centuries,  would  seem  to  have  had,  so  far  as 
racial  factors  are  concerned,  effects  quite  incommensurate  with 
those  produced  upon  the  culture  and  language  of  France.  Cul- 
turally the  population  was  revolutionized,  its  Celtic  language 


FRANCE  AND  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 


55 


practically  disappeared  and  was  replaced  by  Latin  forms;  but 
racially  Roman  influence  was  seemingly  slight,  for,  as  will  be 
shown  later,  the  Romans  of  the  Empire  were,  as  a whole,  not 
much  different  in  their  primary  characteristics  from  the  Alpine 
invaders  which  had  been  pouring  into  France  from  the  Central 
European  Highlands  for  2,000  years. 

By  the  third  century  A.  D.  the  pressure  of  the  Teutonic- 
speaking Baltic  tribes  grew  stronger,  and  the  Franks  broke 
through  the  frontier  guards  and  penetrated  into  France.  By  the 
fifth  century  they  and  other  tribes,  like  the  Goths  and  Burgun- 
dians, had  overrun  the  Paris  basin  and  the  northern  portion  of 
the  Saone-Rhone  depression  and  extended  far  into  Aquitaine; 
and  by  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  they  had  put  an  end 
to  Roman  rule.  A large  number  of  graves  of  the  early  Frankish 
and  the  Merovingian  period  which  follows  have  been  excavated, 
but  unfortunately  the  detailed  measurements  of  the  crania  have 
not  been  published.  So  far  as  can  be  judged,  however,  from 
the  data  as  given,1  these  Teutonic  invaders  were  of  tall  stature, 
and  a mixture  primarily  of  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  types. 
The  Burgundians  and  perhaps  the  Goths  may  have  had  a con- 
siderable Alpine  factor. 

During  the  Carlovingian  period,  which  lasted  until  the  tenth 
century,  the  dolichocephalic  element  in  Normandy  was  prob- 
ably somewhat  further  increased  by  the  Scandinavian  raids  and 
settlements.  The  net  result  of  these  several  centuries  of  immi- 
gration was  to  bring,  thus,  a considerable  “Nordic”  factor  into 
most  of  northern  France,  while  the  south  was  relatively  little 
affected.  That  the  Huns  in  the  fifth  century  or  the  Saracens  in 
the  eighth  left  any  lasting  mark  is  very  doubtful.  More  may  be 
said,  probably,  for  the  Celtic-speaking  Bretons,  who,  fleeing  from 
the  Saxons  in  southern  Britain,  crossed  the  Channel  to  Brittany, 
where  their  descendants  still  live. 

During  the  period  of  approximately  a thousand  years  ex- 
tending from  the  Carlovingian  period  to  the  present  day,  we  are 
able  to  sample  the  population  of  France  only  very  imperfectly, 

1 Hamy,  1893;  Hovelacque,  1876;  Verneau,  1898. 


56 


EUROPE 


since  the  data  on  the  crania  have  been  published  only  as  aver- 
ages. Hovelacque  and  Herve1  have,  however,  given  us  excel- 
lent material  for  the  region  of  the  Morvan  (in  the  northeast  cor- 
ner of  the  Massif  Central)  in  a series  of  crania  dating  from  the 
seventeenth  to  the  nineteenth  centuries.  Analysis  shows  that 
the  population  of  this  district  had  by  this  time  become  over- 
whelmingly brachycephalic,  the  dolichocephalic  factors  present 
in  the  Haut  Morvan  amounting  to  only  about  io  per  cent.  The 
types  present  are  primarily  the  Palas-Alpine  and  Alpine,  with  a 
minority  of  the  Ural  type.  From  Dauphiny2  a smaller  series  of 
crania  shows  an  equal  dominance  of  brachycephalic  factors,  with 
here  a minority  of  the  Mongoloid  type. 

If  we  turn  to  Provence,  whence  we  have  a small  series  of 
crania  dating  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  nineteenth  centuries, 
we  find  in  general  the  same  conditions,  yet  here,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  sex  of  the  skulls  has  been  given  (the  Morvan  series 
being  unsexed)  analysis  shows  a further  significant  fact.  For 
while  both  sexes  show  a very  strong  predominance  of  brachy- 
cephalic forms,  the  males  are  mainly  Alpine,  while  the  females 
are  as  strongly  Pake-Alpine;  indicating,  apparently,  that  the  lat- 
ter represent  the  older  Neolithic  brachycephals,  while  the  males 
are  to  be  affiliated  more  with  the  later  Celtic  stream. 

The  complete  dominance  of  brachycephalic  types  found  east 
of  the  Rhone  did  not  extend  to  Languedoc  on  the  west,  for  here 
Lapouge3  has  shown  that  in  the  crania  of  the  seventeenth  to  the 
eighteenth  century  from  Montpelier,  dolichocephalic  forms  are 
present  in  considerable  numbers.  A difference,  moreover,  is 
apparent  between  the  peasantry  and  the  nobility,  for  while  the 
former  were  predominantly  brachycephalic,  the  latter  were  even 
more  strongly  dolichocephalic,  the  Mediterranean  type  seeming 
to  be  that  most  strongly  represented. 

For  the  rest  of  France  no  detailed  analysis  is  possible.  All 
that  can  be  said  is  that  in  Auvergne  and  Brittany  the  brachy- 
cephalic factors  are  in  the  great  majority,  although  the  Bas  Bret- 
ons show  something  of  a dolichocephalic  minority.  How  far 

1 Hovelacque,  1894.  2 Prudent,  1892.  5 Lapouge,  1891. 


FRANCE  AND  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 


57 


this  may  be  regarded  as  due  to  the  survival  here  of  a remnant 
of  the  ancient  dolichocephalic  peoples,  or  how  far  it  is  the  result 
of  “Nordic”  colonists,  it  is  with  our  present  data  impossible  to 
say. 

We  have  now  traced  in  some,  perhaps  in  too  great,  detail,  the 
racial  history  of  France  (in  so  far  as  that  is  evidenced  by  our 
“types”)  from  Palaeolithic  times  down  to  modern  days,  as  re- 
vealed by  the  skeletal  material.  There  remains  to  consider  the 
living  population,  the  product  of  the  many  complex  blendings 
of  these  many  thousand  years. 

The  head-form  of  the  living  French  people  has  been  studied 
chiefly  by  Collignon.  It  is  clear  from  the  map  (Plate  I),  based 
upon  his  data  and  showing  the  average  cephalic  index  for  each 
department,  that  the  present  population  is  very  largely  brachy- 
cephalic,  no  department  yielding  an  average  which  can  properly 
be  called  dolichocephalic.  The  distribution  of  the  higher  in- 
dices, marking  probably  an  almost  purely  brachycephalic  popu- 
lation, is  significant.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  departments  hav- 
ing an  average  index  of  83  or  over  are  distributed  in  a wedge- 
shaped  area  cutting  from  northeast  to  southwest  across  the 
country  below  its  centre.  The  broad  base  of  the  wedge  covers 
practically  the  whole  eastern  frontier,  and  is  continuous  with 
the  great  region  of  prevalent  brachycephaly  which  covers  all  of 
central  Europe.  From  this  base,  the  wedge  runs  westward 
through  the  southern  half  of  the  Massif  Central,  and  approaches 
the  Atlantic  north  of  the  Pyrenees.  It  will  also  be  noted  that 
from  the  centre  of  the  northern  side  of  the  wedge  an  irregular 
arm  extends  northwest  into  Brittany.  The  wedge  itself  and  this 
arm  serve  to  define  three  areas  characterized  by  mesocephaly, 
and,  therefore,  with  a larger  dolichocephalic  element,  i.  e.,  the 
Paris  basin,  the  basin  of  Aquitaine,  and  the  Mediterranean 
shore. 

The  first  and  probably  the  second  of  these  areas  owe  their 
greater  proportion  of  long-headed  elements  to  the  Teutonic  im- 
migrations, except  that  the  sharply  defined  region  of  low  indices 
in  Dordogne  and  Haute  Vienne  may  be  regarded  as  including 


58 


EUROPE 


the  last  remnants  of  the  Neolithic  and  late  Palaeolithic  types. 
The  Mediterranean  littoral  also  probably  owes  its  dolichocephalic 
factors  in  the  main  to  the  Neolithic  Mediterranean  type,  with 
possibly  some  survivals  of  still  older  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- 
Australoid  types. 

The  distribution  of  stature  corresponds  in  general  with  what 
might  be  expected  from  the  probable  distribution  of  the  several 
types.  The  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  types  which  are  dominant 
over  so  large  a portion  of  France  are  in  general  short,  as  is  also 
the  Mediterranean.  Only  in  the  northeast,  in  the  Paris  basin, 
where  the  “Nordic”  influence  was  strongest,  do  we  find  taller 
statures.  The  only  exception  to  this  is  in  Burgundy,  Savoy, 
and  Dauphiny,  where  it  may  perhaps  be  attributed  to  the  Bur- 
gundian influence,  as  these  people  were  notably  tall.  The  short- 
est statures  are  found  in  two  separate  areas,  (i)  the  departments 
of  Correze,  Haute  Vienne,  and  Dordogne,  and  (2)  the  north- 
western tip  of  Brittany.  Since  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  in 
these  two  regions  the  old  Palaeolithic,  short-statured  population 
survives  in  greatest  strength,  the  decrease  in  stature  may  reason- 
ably be  attributed  to  this  influence. 

The  distribution  of  pigmentation  also  follows  in  general  that 
of  the  several  types.  Speaking  broadly,  the  blond  factor  is 
strongest  in  the  northeast,  the  brunet  in  the  southwest  and 
south.  The  Mediterranean,  as  well  as  the  Palae-Alpine  and  Al- 
pine types,  are  characteristically  brunet,  while  the  “Nordic” 
blend  of  Caspian,  Mediterranean,  and  Proto-Negroid  is  pri- 
marily blond,  as  is  perhaps  (?)  the  Ural  type. 

The  major  features  of  the  living  population  of  France  thus 
find  their  legitimate  explanation  in  the  history  whose  course  we 
have  here  followed  from  early  prehistoric  times.  In  brief,  that 
history  shows  an  original  people  primarily  of  Proto-Australoid 
type,  which  gave  place  in  Neolithic  times  to  one  still  dolicho- 
cephalic, but  mainly  Mediterranean.  This  was  then  slowly  but 
surely  replaced  and  largely  superseded  by  an  influx  of  Palae- 
Alpine  and  Alpine  types  from  central  Europe.  After  the  meta- 
morphosis was  practically  complete,  a new  wave  of  long-headed 


PLATE  I.  FRANCE. 

Distribution  of  the  Cephalic  Index  (after  Collignon). 


FRANCE  AND  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 


59 


folk,  the  blond  Baltic,  Teutonic-speaking  tribes  poured  over  the 
north  and  northeast  of  France  at  the  same  time  that  it  swept 
victoriously  over  parts  of  the  British  Isles.  In  Britain  this  led 
to  a far-reaching  change  of  language,  and  profoundly  influenced 
the  physical  type;  in  southern  Germany  and  Austria  the  Teu- 
tonic invasions  led  also  to  a change  in  speech,  but  produced  no 
lasting  effect  on  the  physical  character  of  the  people;  in  France 
the  invading  Franks  lost  their  own  language,  although  they 
gave  their  name  to  the  country;  and  although  they  and  their 
kindred  tribes  had  a more  lasting  effect  upon  the  racial  charac- 
ter of  the  conquered  people  than  was  the  case  in  Germany  or 
Austria,  yet  France  to-day,  in  spite  of  them,  forms  essentially  a 
western  extension  of  the  great  central  European  domain  of  the 
Alpine  and  Palae- Alpine  peoples.  In  Plate  II,  Fig.  i,  we  have  an 
example  of  the  dominant  Alpine  type  as  it  appears  in  France 
to-day. 

II.  The  Low  Countries 

The  region  comprised  within  the  limits  of  the  present  coun- 
tries of  Belgium  and  Holland  is  divisible  geographically  into  two 
quite  different  areas.  The  northern  portion,  including  all  of 
Holland  and  northern  Belgium,  forms  part  of  the  belt  of  low 
coastal  plains  which  fringe  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea  and  the 
Baltic.  The  southern  half  of  Belgium,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
part  of  the  plateau  of  the  Ardennes,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a 
northwestern  extension  of  the  Central  European  Highlands. 
This  topographic  contrast  is  paralleled  by  a linguistic  difference 
no  less  clear,  in  that  throughout  the  northern  lowlands  the  lan- 
guages spoken,  Frisian,  Dutch,  and  Flemish,  belong  to  the  Teu- 
tonic group,  whereas  the  Walloon  of  the  southern  upland  is 
closely  allied  to  French. 

In  seeking  to  discover  the  character  of  the  earliest  population 
of  the  Low  Countries,  we  are  confined  to  the  southern  plateau, 
for  only  here  have  remains  of  Palaeolithic  and  Neolithic  man  as 
yet  been  found.  The  crania  of  Spy  and  Engis  in  the  valley  of 
the  Meuse  show  that  in  Mousterian  times  the  occupants  of  this 


60 


EUROPE 


region  were  a short-statured,  dolichocephalic  people,  in  whom 
the  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types  were  blended,  al- 
though the  mesocephalic  character  of  Spy  No.  2 indicates  that 
some  admixture  with  a brachycephalic  type,  apparently  the 
Mongoloid,  had  already  occurred.  To  all  intents  and  purposes, 
thus,  the  population  here  was  similar  to  that  in  central  France 
at  this  same  time. 

The  Neolithic  data1  are  more  abundant,  but  again  come  al- 
most wholly  from  the  same  valley  of  the  Meuse.  In  place  of  the 
preponderant  dolichocephalic  factors  of  Palaeolithic  times,  we 
find  a large  majority  of  brachycephalic  elements,  the  Mongoloid 
and  Ural  types  being  most  important.  The  Ardennes  plateau 
thus  presents  a striking  contrast  with  the  adjacent  regions  of 
France  and  the  British  Isles,  where  the  Neolithic  population  was 
predominantly  of  Mediterranean  type,  and  such  brachycephalic 
factors  as  were  present  were  in  the  main  Palae-Alpine.  The  ex- 
planation of  this  difference  is  not  yet  clear,  but  the  presence  of  a 
very  large  factor  of  the  Mongoloid  type  among  the  female  crania 
found  at  Ofnet  in  Bavaria,  and  dating  from  the  very  close  of  the 
Palaeolithic  period,  suggests  that  this  element  at  least  may  have 
come  by  way  of  the  northern  border  of  the  Central  European 
Highlands  in  late  Palaeolithic  times. 

What  changes  occurred  in  the  population  of  this  whole  region 
in  the  millennia  between  the  Neolithic  period  and  the  era  of  the 
great  tribal  migrations  of  the  sixth  century  and  after,  we  can 
only  surmise,  since  satisfactory  material  is  almost  wholly  lack- 
ing. Judging  from  the  history  of  the  adjacent  region,  however, 
we  must  infer  a large  influx  of  Palae-Alpines  and  Alpines,  and  that 
the  upland  at  least,  and  probably  much  of  the  lowland,  except 
possibly  the  northern  coast,  remained  for  most  of  the  period  al- 
most exclusively  brachycephalic.  By  the  sixth  or  seventh  cen- 
tury A.  D.,  however,  when  the  movement  of  the  Baltic  peoples 
was  well  under  way,  we  find  the  Frankish  crania2  from  southern 
Belgium  indicating  a people  prevailingly  dolichocephalic  and 
characterized  by  that  blend  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types 

1Fraipont,  1897;  Houz6,  1904b.  2Houz6,  1891  and  1904a. 


FRANCE  AND  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 


61 


which  is  commonly  called  “ Nordic.”  It  is  at  this  period  that 
we  get  our  first  data  from  Holland.  A considerable  series  of 
crania  of  this  period  have  been  found  in  Friesland  and  Groenin- 
gen,  the  males  of  which  are  quite  comparable  with  the  Frankish 
crania  of  Belgium,  except  that  in  addition  to  the  Mediterranean 
and  Caspian  factors  there  is  here  present  quite  a noticeable  ele- 
ment of  the  Proto-Australoid,  whose  presence  in  the  Baltic  region 
in  Neolithic  times  we  shall  have  occasion  to  note  later.  The 
female  crania,  on  the  other  hand,  show  a considerable  Palae- 
Alpine  and  Alpine  factor.  It  is  tempting  to  regard  this  as  evi- 
dence that  the  presumed  dominance  of  these  types  in  the  Belgian 
uplands,  at  least  in  Bronze  and  early  Iron  times,  had  extended 
north  over  all  of  Holland,  as  witness  their  extension  to  Den- 
mark. The  Friesland  data,  then,  of  the  sixth  and  eighth  cen- 
turies would  indicate  an  intrusion  from  the  eastward  of  conquer- 
ing Teutonic  tribes  allied  to  the  Franks,  Anglo-Saxons,  and 
others.  This  conclusion  is  strengthened  by  the  even  more  com- 
plete submergence  of  the  earlier  brachycephalic  population  of 
Denmark  by  the  Teutonic  “Nordics”  in  the  Iron  Age,  which 
would  but  little  antedate  the  period  of  the  Friesland  crania. 

These  considerations  are  perhaps  further  substantiated  by  the 
scanty  mediaeval  data  which  we  possess.  Crania  dating  from 
the  period  between  the  fourteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  from 
the  islands  in  the  Zuyder  Zee,  Amsterdam,  and  the  islands  of 
Beveland  and  Walcheren  in  the  Scheldt-Rhine  delta,  show  a very 
large  majority  of  Alpine  and  Ural  types,  as  though  the  older 
brachycephalic  population  had  survived  in  relative  purity  in  the 
more  isolated  portion  of  the  country,  where  the  influence  of  the 
Teutonic  invasions  had  not  made  itself  felt. 

The  characteristics  of  the  modern  population1  of  the  Low 
Countries  seem  admirably  to  bear  out  the  preceding  hypoth- 
esis. In  the  Ardennes  plateau  of  southern  Belgium  the  people 
are  to-day  just  under  medium  stature,  predominantly  brachy- 
cephalic and  brunet.  The  same  type,  but  with  greatly  exag- 
gerated brachycephaly,  occupies  the  coastal  provinces  of  Zeeland 

1 Barge,  1914;  Bolk,  1908. 


62 


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and  Zuid  and  Noord  Holland.  On  the  other  hand,  the  plains  of 
Flanders  and  all  the  rest  of  Holland  present  a taller  people,  in 
creasing  in  stature  northward  to  Friesland;  in  head-form  meso- 
cephalic,  with  a rising  proportion  of  true  dolichocephalic  individ- 
uals as  one  goes  northward;  and  a general  biondness,  which  be- 
comes more  pronounced  as  one  progresses  in  the  same  direction. 
That  even  in  Friesland,  however,  a considerable  brachy cephalic 
element  still  exists  is  shown  by  a series  of  nineteenth  century 
crania,  in  which  these  factors  are  actually  in  the  majority,  the 
Ural  type  being  present  in  large  amount,  as  it  is  on  the  neighbor- 
ing coasts  of  Scotland  and  southern  Norway.  This  type  was 
already  noticeable  in  the  Ardennes  plateau,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, as  early  as  Neolithic  times,  and  its  long  persistence  in 
this  region  is  a striking  fact. 

A further  contrast  between  the  northern  and  southern  por- 
tions of  the  Low  Countries  may  be  pointed  out.  In  the  south, 
in  the  Ardennes  plateau,  the  Teutonic  invaders  of  the  sixth  and 
seventh  centuries,  although  producing  a powerful  temporary  in- 
fluence on  the  physical  types,  had  little  lasting  effect,  and  the 
population  to-day  has  seemingly  reverted  to  the  dominantly 
brachy  cephalic  types  which  characterized  it  before  the  Frankish 
invasions,  and  the  influence  of  these  on  the  speech  of  the  people 
was  as  ephemeral  as  on  their  physical  type.  In  the  open  low- 
lands, however,  the  result  of  the  Teutonic  surge  has  been  dif- 
ferent. There  a considerable  modification  in  physical  type  has 
occurred,  and  throughout  the  area  a Teutonic  language  now 
prevails. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  AND  SCANDINAVIA 
I.  The  British  Isles 

For  the  clearer  understanding  of  the  racial  history  of  the 
British  Isles  a brief  consideration  of  their  topographical  features 
is  helpful.  The  factor  of  greatest  importance  lies  in  the  contrast 
afforded  by  the  eastern  and  western  sides  of  the  islands.  The 
eastern,  central,  and  southeastern  portions  of  England  may  be 
described  as  a gently  rolling  plain,  whereas  the  western  coast  and 
the  larger  portion  of  Scotland  are  more  or  less  rugged.  Although 
the  contrast  is  less  marked  in  Ireland,  we  may  recognize  a dif- 
ference between  the  central  section  and  the  more  rugged  region 
to  the  north,  west,  and  south.  The  richer  and  more  desirable 
lands  thus  lie  nearest  the  European  continent,  and  immigrant 
peoples  would,  in  occupying  these  first,  drive  the  earlier  occu- 
pants westward  and  northward  into  the  rougher  areas.  Al- 
though in  historic  times  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the 
Channel,  England  was  perhaps  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  Neo- 
lithic times,  still  joined  to  France  and  the  Netherlands  by  a 
broad  belt  of  lowland,  since  sunk  below  the  sea. 

Linguistically  the  British  Isles  are  divisible  into  two  very 
unequal  parts.  The  great  majority  of  the  population  is  English- 
speaking,  but  remnants  of  the  formerly  much  more  widely  spread 
Celtic  languages  still  survive  in  parts  of  the  Scottish  Highlands, 
Wales,  and  western  Ireland,  i.  e.,  in  the  more  rugged  western 
marginal  region  just  referred  to. 

The  Piltdown  skull  found  in  Sussex  gives  us  our  earliest  indi- 
cations in  regard  to  the  population  of  the  British  Isles.  It  dates 
from  the  earliest  portion  of  the  Palaeolithic  period,  and  although 
too  incomplete  to  enable  us  to  place  it  in  our  series  with  absolute 
certainty,  it  seems  probable  that  with  its  high,  mesocephalic 

63 


64 


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cranial  index,  low  vault,  and  almost  certainly  broad  nose,  it  rep- 
resents, as  does  the  Gibraltar  skull,  a blend  of  the  Proto-Austra- 
loid and  Mongoloid  types. 

A number  of  crania,  probably  of  late  Pakeolithic  age,  have 
also  been  found  in  England,  but  are  in  general  less  well  preserved 
than  those  in  France,  so  that  definite  determination  of  types  is 
not  possible.  Of  the  eight  crania,  however,  which  have  some 
claim  to  be  regarded  as  late  Palaeolithic,  five  are  clearly  dolicho- 
cephalic, two  are  mesocephalic,  and  one  is  possibly  brachyce- 
phalic.  As  to  the  other  characteristics,  we  can  tell  little,  and  can 
only  surmise,  on  the  basis  of  contemporary  data  from  France, 
that  the  Proto-Australoid  type  was  probably  most  strongly  rep- 
resented. In  stature  all  these  Palaeolithic  people  appear  to  have 
been  short. 

With  the  advent  of  Neolithic  times  our  data  greatly  improve. 
The  people  of  this  period  are  associated  with  the  megalithic 
remains  and  also  with  the  burial  mounds,  known  from  their 
shape  as  the  Long  Barrows.  The  larger  part  of  our  data  are 
derived  from  these  latter  sites,  which  are  abundant  in  west  cen- 
tral England  and  in  Yorkshire,  but  we  have  in  addition  the  so- 
called  “river-bed”  crania,  found  chiefly  in  the  Thames  valley. 
Like  their  predecessors,  the  Long  Barrow  people  were  primarily 
dolichocephalic,  but  were  in  the  main  of  the  Mediterranean  type.1 
The  Proto-Australoid  type,  however,  which  the  newcomers  sup- 
planted, still  played  a considerable  part,  and  a third  dolicho- 
cephalic factor,  the  Caspian,  also  appears  as  a minority,  just  as 
it  does  even  earlier  on  the  continent.  Roughly,  a third  of  the 
elements  which  went  to  make  up  the  Long  Barrow  population, 
however,  belonged  to  the  brachycephalic,  Palce-Alpine  type. 
The  river-bed  crania  are,  in  general,  imperfect,  but  so  far  as  can 
be  determined,  are  substantially  similar  to  the  Long  Barrow 
remains. 

For  Scotland  the  scanty  data  suggest  a population  primarily 
of  Mediterranean  type,  especially  along  the  western  coast;  for 
Ireland  the  few  Neolithic  crania  known  indicate  the  prevalence 

1 Schuster,  1905-06. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  AND  SCANDINAVIA 


65 


of  this  same  type,  but  blended  with  a brachycephalic  factor, 
which  is  here  the  Alpine,  and  not  the  Pake-Alpine,  as  in  Eng- 
land. The  former  is  practically  absent  from  England  at  this 
time,  and  its  presence  in  Ireland  suggests  the  possibility  that  it 
came  by  sea. 

The  routes  by  which  the  Neolithic  immigrants  reached  and 
spread  over  the  British  Isles  are  as  yet  not  certain.  Land  con- 
nection with  the  continent  perhaps  persisted  until  the  middle 
of  the  period,  and  would  have  afforded  direct  communication, 
but  it  seems  probable,  as  Fleure  and  James  have  shown,1  that 
the  larger  part  of  the  Mediterranean  peoples  came  from  Brittany 
across  by  sea  to  the  southern  coast,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  and  thence  spread  along  the  coasts,  and  across  the  Irish 
Sea.  With  them  doubtless  came  some  elements  of  the  Palae- 
Alpine  type,  already  numerous  in  France,  although  there  is  rea- 
son to  believe  that  some  of  these  latter  came  very  early,  entering 
England  from  the  northeast  by  land,  before  the  connection  with 
the  continent  was  severed.  By  this  route,  also,  it  seems  certain 
that  the  Caspian  factor  reached  the  British  Isles,  since  at  this 
time  it  was  penetrating  from  the  north  into  France. 

The  end  of  the  Neolithic  period  marks  the  beginning  of  a 
further  change.  Hitherto  the  brachycephalic  peoples  had  been 
a minor  although  important  element  in  the  make-up  of  the  pop- 
ulation; during  the  succeeding,  or  Bronze  period,  they  played,  as 
in  the  rest  of  Europe,  a larger  part.  As  the  Long  Barrows  sup- 
plied most  of  the  data  for  the  Neolithic  period,  so  the  Round 
Barrows  yield  the  bulk  of  the  material  for  the  succeeding  age. 
While  the  Long  Barrows  were  mainly  confined  to  the  west  cen- 
tral parts  of  England,  the  Round  Barrows  are  more  widely  dis- 
tributed. The  new  immigrants  who  poured  into  Britain  seem 
to  have  come  at  first  without  the  knowledge  of  bronze,  but 
bringing  new  types  of  pottery.  The  use  of  bronze,  however, 
soon  became  known,  and  the  possession  of  weapons  of  metal 
must  have  given  the  newcomers  a signal  advantage  over  the 
earlier  population,  who  had  only  stone  implements.  They  may 

1 Fleure,  1916. 


66 


EUROPE 


well  have  established  themselves  as  a conquering  and  ruling  class, 
and  largely  relegated  such  of  the  older  occupants  whom  they  did 
not  drive  out,  to  the  position  of  slaves  or  serfs. 

The  skeletal  remains  from  the  mounds  and  cists  of  this 
period1  reveal  a people  of  tall  stature  and  prevailingly  brachy- 
cephalic,  the  Alpine  type  being  largely  in  the  predominance. 
The  older  Palae-Alpines  are,  however,  not  wanting,  and  in  the 
north,  indeed,  in  Yorkshire  and  Aberdeen,  actually  outnumber 
the  Alpines.  A third  brachycephalic  type  also  makes  its  ap- 
pearance, the  Ural,  present  in  Belgium  already  in  Neolithic  times 
and  characteristic  of  southern  Norway  and  of  Friesland  at  a 
later  date. 

The  wave  of  Alpine  and  Ural  types  which  thus  spread  over 
England  and  eastern  and  northern  Scotland  seems  to  have 
reached  Ireland  only  in  minor  degree;  at  least,  little  evidence  of 
brachycephalic  crania  of  this  period  has  been  reported.  Yet  it 
seems  doubtful  if  the  large  brachycephalic  element  apparent  in 
the  modern  population  can  be  wholly  accounted  for  by  later 
immigration.  After  half  a century  at  least  of  discussion,  the 
Celtic  question  cannot  yet  be  said  to  be  finally  settled,  but  it 
would  seem  that  we  may  with  reasonable  certainty  aver  that  it 
was  with  the  immigrants  who  came  in  the  Bronze  period,  from 
the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  and  France,  that  Celtic  speech  was 
brought  to  the  British  Isles.  Yet,  although  probably  the  ma- 
jority of  the  Bronze  Age  immigrants  came  thus  from  the  nearer 
shores  of  the  continent,  it  is  almost  certain  that  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  period  considerable  invasions  came  from  the  Scandi- 
navian and  Baltic  regions  to  northern  and  eastern  Scotland,  and 
perhaps  to  northern  Ireland  as  well. 

We  have  little  or  no  material  from  the  period  of  three  or  four 
centuries  intervening  between  the  end  of  the  Bronze  period  and 
the  beginning  of  Roman  rule.  To  what  extent  the  Roman  oc- 
cupation had  any  lasting  influence  on  the  British  population  it 
is  hard  to  say.  Neither  the  Romans  themselves  nor  any  of  the 
peoples  who  might  have  been  among  their  legions  would  have 

1 Schuster,  1905-06. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  AND  SCANDINAVIA 


67 


brought  any  new  factors  to  the  complex,  and  whatever  influence 
they  might  have  had  would  have  been  to  intensify  the  Alpine 
factors  present.  The  period  of  Roman  occupation,  then,  is  not 
to  be  considered  as  one  during  which  any  notable  changes  took 
place,  but  rather  as  one  in  which  the  existing  more  or  less  dis- 
crete elements  underwent  a partial  fusion  and  assimilation. 

The  fall  of  the  Roman  power,  however,  ushered  in  a new 
era,  which  was  to  continue,  with  some  interruptions,  for  nearly 
a thousand  years.  Already,  during  the  period  of  Roman  rule, 
sea  raiders  from  Denmark  and  northwestern  Germany  began  to 
harry  the  Scotch  and  English  coasts,  but  it  was  not  until  the 
power  of  Rome  had  been  weakened  and  well-nigh  destroyed  in 
Britain,  that  the  new  invaders  came  in  force.  From  the  fifth 
century  onward  for  some  time,  a stream  of  Anglo-Saxon  conquer- 
ors and  colonists  poured  into  the  south  and  east  of  Britain,  and 
spread  over  the  land  except  in  the  extreme  north  and  west. 
The  crania  from  the  Saxon  graves1  of  the  south  of  England  and 
of  the  Angles2  from  further  to  the  northeast  show  that  these  im- 
migrants were,  like  the  invaders  of  Neolithic  times,  primarily 
dolichocephalic.  They  resembled  these  early  predecessors  in 
having  a large  factor  of  the  Mediterranean  type,  but  differed  in 
that  a considerable  Caspian  element  was  also  present.  They 
were,  moreover,  of  tall  stature,  and  had  fair  hair  and  light- 
colored  eyes,  whereas  the  Neolithic  immigrants  were  under  me- 
dium stature  and  almost  certainly  brunet. 

A comparison  of  the  materials  available  for  the  West  Sax- 
ons, the  South  Saxons,  and  the  Angles  reveals  some  interesting 
differences.  The  South  Saxons  appear  to  be  the  more  purely 
dolichocephalic  of  the  three,  and  show  the  largest  element  of 
Mediterranean  type.  The  Angles,  although  but  little  behind 
the  South  Saxons  in  the  strength  of  their  dolichocephaly,  have 
an  unexpectedly  large  element  of  the  Proto-Australoid  type, 
which  does  not  appear  at  all  in  the  other  group.  It  seems  possi- 
ble, however,  to  account  for  this  element  by  the  fact  that  it  was 
prominent  in  Mecklenburg  in  Neolithic  times,  so  that  its  pres- 

1 Horton-Smith,  1896-97;  Peake,  1915.  2 Horton-Smith,  op.  cit. 


68 


EUROPE 


ence  in  the  Angles,  who  are  supposed  to  have  come  from  the 
adjacent  Baltic  shore  of  Schleswig,  would  be  quite  natural.  The 
West  Saxons  present  quite  a different  picture.  They  formed,  as 
it  were,  the  point  of  the  wedge  which  the  newcomers  were  driv- 
ing into  the  older  population,  and  might  thus  be  expected  to 
show,  more  clearly  than  the  others,  the  effects  of  intermixture 
with  the  ancient  British  population.  This  seems  to  be  the  case, 
for  among  the  West  Saxons  the  dolichocephalic  factors  presumed 
to  be  characteristic  of  the  immigrants  are  actually  in  the  mi- 
nority, whereas  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  elements  come  to  the 
fore.  These  brachycephalic  factors  might,  to  be  sure,  have  been 
brought  by  the  West  Saxons  from  the  continent,  since  both  types 
were  common  in  Denmark  at  least,  yet,  all  things  considered, 
the  former  suggestion  seems  more  probable. 

While  England  was  thus  receiving  large  increments  of  popu- 
lation from  northwest  Germany  and  southern  Denmark,  north- 
ern and  western  Scotland  was  being  raided  and  to  some  extent 
colonized  by  Norwegians  and  Danes.  That  these  were  by  no 
means  all  of  dolichocephalic  types  is  shown  conclusively  by  the 
crania  from  the  Shetland  and  Orkney  Islands,  which  show  a large 
Alpine  element.  For  Ireland  during  this  period  we  have  but 
scanty  data,  and  the  crania  from  the  Round  Towers  in  Ulster1 
only  enable  us  to  say  that  the  population  was  very  much  mixed. 
We  know,  indeed,  that  this  northern  part  of  Ireland  received, 
as  did  Scotland,  a considerable  number  of  Scandinavian  immi- 
grants, and  we  must  assume  that  here,  as  there,  this  meant  a 
substantial  increase  in  Alpine  and  probably  Ural  types.  The  dif- 
ferentiation between  the  people  of  northern  and  southern  Ire- 
land was  thus  already  beginning. 

The  next  glimpse  we  are  able  to  secure  of  the  racial  melting- 
pot  in  the  British  Isles  is  afforded  by  the  several  series  of  crania 
which  have  been  secured  from  old  crypts  or  “charnels”  of  the 
fourteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  Series  of  this  sort  have 
been  obtained  from  Hythe  (Kent),2  London,3  Rothwell  (North- 


1 Grattan,  1858. 

3 Macdowell,  1903  and  1906-07. 


2 Parsons,  1908. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  AND  SCANDINAVIA 


69 


amptonshire)1,  and  from  Micheldean  and  Gloucester  (Glouces- 
tershire).2 Unfortunately  only  the  London  series  have  been 
published  as  yet  in  full.  The  Kentish  crania  show  an  interest- 
ing but  rather  puzzling  state  of  affairs.  The  seat  during  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period  of  important  Jutish  settlements,  one  might 
expect  to  find  the  influence  of  these  people,  allied  to  the  Angles 
and  Saxons,  shown  in  a strengthening  of  the  dolichocephalic  ele- 
ments in  the  population.  Instead,  the  exact  opposite  occurs, 
the  Hythe  crania  being  in  large  majority  brachycephalic.  Sev- 
eral explanations  suggest  themselves  for  this  phenomenon.  We 
may  assume  that  the  Jutes  brought  with  them  a large  factor  of 
the  Alpine  type,  prominent  in  Denmark  in  Bronze  times;  or 
we  may  believe  that  the  Jutish  settlers  were  originally  dolicho- 
cephalic, like  the  Saxons,  but  that  they  ultimately  became  ab- 
sorbed, and  that  there  was  a resurgence  of  the  earlier  Bronze 
Age  types,  in  the  manner  so  strikingly  suggested  by  Fleure  and 
James3  for  the  modern  population  of  the  southern  Midlands. 
Possibly  a simpler  explanation  may  lie  in  the  influence  exerted 
by  Walloon  colonies  of  later  years,  similar  to  the  Flemish  ones 
to  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  Bristol  crania. 

The  two  London  series  (Whitechapel  and  Bishopsgate)  afford 
our  best  material.  They  represent  in  all  probability  the  lower 
classes  of  the  people  of  London  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
show  them  to  have  been  predominantly  dolichocephalic,  with  the 
Mediterranean  type  present  in  large  majority,  and  a consider- 
able element  also  of  the  old  Proto-Australoid  factor.  The  female 
crania  show  a surprisingly  large  element  of  the  Mongoloid  type, 
but  otherwise  agree  closely  with  the  male  series.  The  influence 
of  the  Bronze  Age  immigration  of  brachycephalic  peoples  seems 
to  have  left  little  effect  on  the  later  population  of  this  area,  and 
since  the  Anglo-Saxon  conquest  is  supposed  to  have  had  but 
slight  consequences  in  London,  it  would  seem  that  the  domi- 
nance of  the  Mediterranean  type  could  best  be  explained  as  due 
to  the  survival  of  the  old  Neolithic  British  type. 


1 Parsons,  1910. 
3 Fleure,  1916. 


2 Beddoe,  1878-79  and  1881  a and  b. 


70 


EUROPE 


The  Rothwell  crania  from  Northamptonshire  tell  a some- 
what similar  story.  Like  the  London  series  they  show  a pre- 
ponderance of  dolichocephalic  factors,  but,  since  no  nasal  mea- 
surements have  been  published,  we  can  only  assume  that  these 
prevailingly  low  skulls  are  in  the  main  of  Mediterranean  type. 
The  two  small  series  from  farther  west  in  Gloucestershire  pre- 
sent, however,  an  interesting  contrast.  That  from  Micheldean 
is  even  more  preponderantly  dolichocephalic  than  the  London 
and  Rothwell  series,  but  the  Bristol1  crania  approximate  the 
Kentish  crania  in  being  prevailingly  brachycephalic.  Two  ex- 
planations for  this  brachycephalic  element  may  be  suggested.  It 
is  possible  that  we  have  here  the  influence  of  the  Bronze  Age 
Alpine  peoples,  who  were  forced  out  of  the  more  southern  and 
eastern  districts  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  conquerors  and  settlers,  or 
that  the  brachycephalic  factors  were  brought  in  much  later  by 
Flemish  immigrants. 

The  data  on  the  living  population  of  the  British  Isles  are  less 
complete  than  for  many  other  parts  of  Europe.  For  stature  and 
pigmentation  they  are  fairly  adequate,  but  head-form  and  other 
metrical  data  are  sadly  deficient.  For  the  larger  portion  of  the 
British  Isles  we  have  nothing  but  county  averages,  based  on 
small  numbers  of  individuals.  These  would  indicate  the  head- 
form  to  be  rather  uniform,  the  average  indices  ranging  from  76 
in  the  Scotch  Highlands  to  over  80  in  western  Ireland.  Al- 
though the  county  averages  are  thus  everywhere  within  the 
limits  of  mesocephaly,  the  recent  splendid  work  of  Fleure  and 
James2  and  Fleming3  in  Wales  shows  that  this  appearance  of 
uniformity  is  wholly  misleading.  They  have  demonstrated  that 
there  is,  in  fact,  a wide  variation  locally,  and  have  been  able  to 
show  that  several  quite  distinct  types  may  be  recognized,  dis- 
tributed with  reference  to  geographic  features,  and  attributable 
with  the  help  of  archaeological  evidence  to  several  distinct  scrata 
of  population.  Some  are  attributable  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  and 
Scandinavian  immigrants,  some  to  earlier  Bronze  Age  peoples, 
others  represent  clearly  the  Neolithic  Mediterranean  type,  and 

1 Beddoe,  1878-79.  2 Fleure,  1916.  3 Fleming,  1922. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  AND  SCANDINAVIA 


71 


they  even  suggest  small  survivals  in  extremely  isolated  regions 
of  the  Palaeolithic  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  factors. 
Their  work  has  demonstrated  the  absolute  necessity  of  the  study 
of  individual  types  rather  than  the  use  of  averages,  and  shown 
the  real  complexity  of  the  population  and  the  persistence  of 
ancient  strata.  Only  when  similar  methods  are  applied  on  a 
large  scale  to  living  populations,  not  only  in  the  whole  of  Europe 
but  everywhere,  can  we  hope  to  unravel  the  story  of  the  racial 
history  of  the  world’s  peoples. 

That  similar  striking  variations  exist  in  other  parts  of  the 
British  Isles  is  shown  by  Turner’s  data  on  modern  Scottish 
crania.1  His  material  makes  it  clear  that  whereas  in  Fifeshire, 
on  the  eastern  coast,  brachycephalic  forms  are  in  the  preponder- 
ance, with  the  Ural  type  very  strongly  represented,  on  the  west 
coast,  in  Renfrew  and  Argyle,  dolichocephalic  factors  are  over- 
whelmingly dominant,  the  Neolithic  Mediterranean  type  being 
in  large  majority. 

In  regard  to  stature,  the  general  averages  show  the  popula- 
tion of  the  British  Isles  to  be  notably  tall,  the  Scotch  having  the 
highest  average  (174  cm.),  followed  by  the  Irish,  with  172  cm. 
and  the  English,  with  171  cm.,  while  the  Welsh  are  the  shortest 
of  all,  169  cm.  The  shortest  statures  are  found  on  both  sides  of 
the  Bristol  Channel  and  in  a strip  running  from  Sussex  through 
Middlesex  to  Hertfordshire.  The  tallest  are  in  southwestern 
Scotland.  In  Ireland  the  west  and  north  are  taller  than  the  rest 
of  the  country. 

In  pigmentation2  the  distribution  is  such  that  the  extreme 
north  of  Scotland  (including  the  Hebrides,  Orkneys,  and  Shet- 
lands)  and  its  east  coast,  together  with  the  eastern  and  southern 
coast  of  England  as  far  west  as  Dorsetshire,  show  the  largest 
proportion  of  blond  types.  The  brunet  population  is  concen- 
trated, on  the  other  hand,  on  the  west  coast,  attaining  its  great- 
est frequency  in  Argyle,  Wales,  and  Cornwall.  Parallel  condi- 
tions in  general  exist  in  Ireland,  where  Leinster  and  the  adjacent 
parts  of  Munster  have  the  lightest,  the  west  coast  the  darkest 
population. 

1 Turner,  1903.  2 Beddoe,  1908;  Gray,  1907;  Tocher,  1908-09. 


72 


EUROPE 


Correlating  the  data  as  far  as  possible,  it  may  be  said  that  we 
can  recognize  in  Great  Britain  to-day  the  following  types:  First, 
a dolichocephalic,  brunet  type  (Plate  II,  Fig.  2),  with  a stature 
which,  while  absolutely  above  the  medium,  is  yet  relatively  the 
shortest  in  the  region.  This  Mediterranean  type  is  present  in 
greatest  abundance,  probably,  in  Wales,  Cornwall,  and  Devon- 
shire, where  Celtic  speech  has  lingered  longest,  and  may  be  re- 
garded as  representing  the  old  Neolithic  population,  to  whom  the 
Alpine,  Celtic-speaking  immigrants  of  the  Bronze  Age  gave  their 
speech,  and  who  have,  under  the  pressure  of  succeeding  waves 
of  invaders,  retreated  westward  to  their  present  seats.  It  is 
probable  that  other  bodies  of  the  same  type  will  be  found  in  the 
economically  less  favored  portions  of  England,  especially  in  the 
uplands  of  the  south.  There  is  some  evidence  in  favor  of  this 
type  being  everywhere  strongly  represented  among  the  laboring 
classes,  and  it  is  probably  still,  as  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
dominant  in  the  poorer  urban  population. 

Modified  by  the  possession  of  a taller  stature  and  a larger 
proportion  of  gray  and  blue  eyes,  as  a result  of  mixture  with  tall, 
blond  Scandinavian  and  Teutonic  immigrants,  we  find  these 
descendants  of  the  Neolithic  British  peoples  spread  widely  along 
the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  and  throughout  much  of  Ireland,  espe- 
cially in  its  western  and  southern  parts. 

The  second  main  type  to-day  is  mesocephalic  or  frankly 
brachy cephalic,  generally  of  tall  stature  and  blond  or  light  brunet 
in  coloring.  In  its  distribution  this  type  seems  to  be  more 
scattered,  although  it  may  be  expected  that  a detailed  investiga- 
tion would  show  considerable  areas  occupied  by  them  in  the 
central  parts  of  England,  and  probably  also  along  the  eastern 
coasts  of  both  England  and  Scotland.  They  represent,  it  is  be- 
lieved, the  brachycephalic  Bronze  Age  immigrants,  mainly  Alpine 
in  type,  but  with  a considerable  Ural  factor.  As  a type  it  is  said 
to  be  particularly  common  among  the  squires  and  landed  gentry. 
In  Ireland,  this  type  is  probably  most  in  evidence  in  the  centre 
and  south. 

Here  and  there,  perhaps  in  the  Old  Black  Breed  of  the  Shet- 


Fig.  2.  English. 


Fig.  3.  Norwegian. 


Fig.  1.  French. 


Fig.  4.  Norwegian.  (Jaederen.) 


PLATE  IT. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  AND  SCANDINAVIA 


73 


lands,  the  Orkneys,  and  the  north  of  Scotland,  in  parts  of  Wales 
and  probably  in  some  other  isolated  spots,  there  are  traces  of  a 
brachycephalic,  brunet  type  of  shorter  stature,  that  seems  to 
represent  the  last  survivors  of  the  Neolithic  Pake- Alpines. 

Lastly,  we  may  recognize  a tall,  blond,  dolichocephalic  type 
representing  the  Teutonic  and  Scandinavian  immigrants  of  post- 
Roman  times.  Like  its  relative  in  the  Baltic  lands  it  is  an 
ancient  blend  of  Mediterranean,  Caspian,  and  Proto-Negroid 
types,  and  is  most  characteristic  of  the  eastern  and  southern 
parts  of  England  and  the  eastern  coast  of  Scotland.  In  Ireland 
its  influence  may  be  seen  in  Ulster. 

That  occasionally,  in  remote  districts,  traces  of  the  Palaeo- 
lithic Proto-Australoids  and  Proto-Negroids  may  still  be  recog- 
nized, seems  to  be  shown  by  the  work  of  Fleure  and  James,  but 
we  cannot  expect  that  these  ancient  types  should  appear  except 
as  sporadic  and  very  rare  cases. 

In  one  respect  the  British  Isles  are  in  striking  contrast  to  the 
neighboring  portions  of  the  European  continent.  They  have 
largely  escaped  the  general  brachycephalization  to  which  the 
larger  part  of  the  mainland  has  been  subjected.  The  consider- 
able influx  of  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  types  which  came  into  the 
islands  in  Neolithic  and  later  times,  seems  to  have  been  in  large 
part  absorbed,  and  further  increments  of  brachycephalic  peoples 
on  a large  scale  have  not  occurred.  Yet  there  is  some  indication 
that  in  recent  times  the  increase  of  brachycephalic  types  which 
has  been  so  striking  in  the  rest  of  Europe  has  also  occurred  in 
Britain.  Measurements  of  recruits  for  the  army  appear  to  show 
that  the  average  cephalic  index  has  been  rising  in  recent  years. 
Whether  this  is  to  be  ascribed  to  an  influx  of  central  European 
immigrants,  or  to  a resurgence  of  old  brachycephalic  elements  in 
the  population,  or  to  some  other  cause,  is  not  yet  clear. 


74 


EUROPE 


II.  Scandinavia:  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway 

Geographically  the  Scandinavian  area  falls  into  two  well- 
contrasted  portions,  a low  plains  region,  comprising  Denmark 
and  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Sweden,  and  a rugged 
mountainous  section,  including  practically  the  whole  of  Nor- 
way, together  with  parts  of  western  Sweden.  The  first  of  these 
portions  is  virtually  a part  of  the  north  German  and  Russian 
plains.  Except  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Scandinavian  penin- 
sula, the  modern  inhabitants  of  this  region  speak  closely  related 
languages,  belonging  to  the  Scandinavian  branch  of  the  Teu- 
tonic group.  In  the  north  the  Lapp  and  Finnish  population 
speak  languages  totally  unlike  the  Scandinavian,  and  belonging 
to  the  Finno-Ugrian  branch  of  the  Ural-Altaic  stock. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  no  part  of  this  whole  area  was 
occupied  by  man  in  the  Palaeolithic  period,  and  that  the  earliest 
settlement  occurred  at  the  very  end  of  the  Palaeolithic  and  the 
beginning  of  Neolithic  times.  Although  objects  of  Neolithic  age 
have  been  found  fairly  widely  distributed  in  Denmark  and  Swe- 
den, practically  all  the  crania  of  this  period  thus  far  described 
are  derived  from  the  Danish  islands  of  Seeland  and  Funen,1  and 
the  adjacent  portions  of  southern  Sweden.2  The  Danish  and 
Swedish  series  present  a curious  contrast,  and  both  come  from 
megalithic  graves.  The  former,  although  showing  a slight  ma- 
jority of  dolichocephalic  factors,  has  as  its  most  important  single 
element  the  Palae-Alpine  type,  with  the  Caspian  type  next  in 
order  of  frequency.  The  Swedish  crania,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
in  large  majority  dolichocephalic,  and  show  three  nearly  balanced 
factors  of  Caspian,  Alpine,  and  Mediterranean  types.  To  put 
the  matter  in  a slightly  different  form,  the  Danish  and  Swedish 
Neolithic  crania  differ  mainly  in  the  presence  in  the  former  of  a 
large  Palae-Alpine  element,  and  in  the  latter  of  a considerable 
Mediterranean  factor.  If  now  these  two  series  be  compared  with 
the  crania  from  Mecklenburg  in  northern  Germany  of  the  same 
period,  it  appears  that  this  series  is  even  more  strongly  dolicho- 

1 Nielsen,  1906,  1911.  2Furst,  1912;  Retzius,  G.,  1900. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  AND  SCANDINAVIA 


75 


cephalic  than  that  from  Sweden,  and  differs,  moreover,  from 
both  the  Danish  and  Swedish  series  in  being  composed  primarily 
of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  factors. 

Three  groups  of  Neolithic  crania  thus,  from  an  area  within  a 
radius  of  only  about  one  hundred  miles,  show  widely  different 
characteristics.  The  strong  Palae- Alpine  element  in  Denmark 
may  be  pretty  confidently  regarded  as  due  to  the  current  of 
peoples  of  this  type  which,  from  western  Switzerland,  passed  into 
France,  Belgium,  and  the  British  Isles  during  this  period,  and 
which  probably  followed  the  North  Sea  coasts  as  far  as  Denmark, 
but  for  some  reason  failed  to  pass  in  any  considerable  numbers 
into  Sweden.  The  presence  of  large  factors  of  Mediterranean 
and  Alpine  types  in  Sweden,  and  their  relative  absence  from  the 
Danish  Islands,  offers  an  interesting  puzzle.  Both  the  Alpine 
and  Mediterranean  types  are  much  stronger  in  the  Westergot- 
land  district  than  in  Skane  farther  south,  where  the  Pake-Alpine 
and  Caspian  types  are  more  in  evidence,  as  in  the  adjacent  Dan- 
ish islands.  This  suggests  that  the  Alpine  and  Mediterranean 
factors  in  Sweden  may  have  been  derived  from  a sea-borne  stream 
of  immigrants,  coming  across  the  North  Sea  from  the  British 
Isles.  The  absence  in  the  Danish  islands  and  southern  Sweden 
of  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- Australoid  types  so  strongly  rep- 
resented in  Mecklenburg  is  hard  to  explain,  unless  we  accept  the 
latter  as  a peculiar  and  isolated  small  group,  not  really  indicat- 
ing the  true  character  of  the  Neolithic  population  of  the  southern 
shore  of  the  Baltic  at  this  time. 

As  in  so  much  of  Europe,  there  is  little  material  to  tell  us  of 
the  physical  characteristics  of  the  population  during  the  Bronze 
Age.  All  that  can  be  said  is  that  scanty  data  from  Denmark 
seem  to  indicate  an  increase  of  the  Alpine  type.  For  the  Iron 
Age  our  information  is  much  more  abundant,  and  in  comparison 
with  the  Neolithic  period  the  changes  are  significant.  In  Den- 
mark1 the  strong  Palae-Alpine  element  has  nearly  disappeared, 
and  there  has  been  a large  increase  in  the  proportions  of  Caspian 
and  Mediterranean  types,  with  the  result  that  the  population  in 

1 Nielsen,  1906. 


76 


EUROPE 


the  Iron  Age  is,  in  contrast  to  that  of  Neolithic  times,  primarily 
dolichocephalic.  This  would  seem  to  argue  a westward  and 
northward  drift  of  the  “Nordic”  peoples  of  the  North  German 
Plain. 

In  eastern  Sweden1  (Gottland)  the  former  strong  factors  of 
Mediterranean  and  Alpine  types  have  largely  decreased,  and  been 
replaced  by  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- Australoid  elements,  which 
previously  had  had  but  slight  representation  in  Sweden.  These 
factors,  however,  are  precisely  those  whose  presence  in  Mecklen- 
burg in  Neolithic  times  was  so  striking  and  peculiar,  and  it  is 
tempting  to  see  in  these  facts  the  evidence  of  the  expulsion  of  the 
peoples  of  the  Mecklenburg  region  by  the  westward  advance  of 
the  “Nordic”  tribes,  and  the  settlement  of  the  refugees  in  Swe- 
den. The  very  meagre  data  for  eastern  Norway,  which  are  the 
earliest  we  have  as  yet  for  this  country,  indicate  that  these  same 
Proto- Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  elements  were  also  in  the 
majority  there. 

For  the  period  from  the  Iron  Age  until  late  mediaeval  times, 
we  have  no  data  for  either  Denmark  or  Sweden,  and  this  period, 
which  included  the  great  outpourings  of  Baltic  peoples  south- 
ward into  central,  western,  and  southern  Europe,  is  in  its  anthro- 
pological history  a blank.  For  Norway,  however,  we  possess 
material  of  much  interest.  There  is  much  evidence  to  lead  to 
the  conclusion  that  Norway  only  received  its  first  population  in 
late  Neolithic  times,  the  earliest  settlers  being  Scandinavian- 
speaking tribes  coming  in  from  Sweden,  and  also  northward  from 
Jutland  in  Denmark.  Traditional  and  linguistic  evidence,  how- 
ever, suggests  that  the  Norwegian  area,  as  well  perhaps  as 
northern  Sweden,  had  a slightly  earlier  rude  hunting  population 
of  Finno-Ugrian  speech,  allied  to  the  modern  Lapp  and  Finn. 
These  aboriginal  peoples  were,  it  is  believed,  in  part  enslaved 
and  in  part  driven  back  into  the  mountains  and  to  the  north- 
ward by  the  Scandinavian  immigrants.  As  yet,  however,  we 
possess  no  early  crania  which  would  enable  us  to  determine  the 
truth  of  this  hypothesis,  although  certain  features  of  the  Nor- 
wegian population  of  to-day  seem  to  corroborate  it. 

1 Retzius,  G.,  1900. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  AND  SCANDINAVIA 


77 


Four  series  of  mediaeval  crania  are  available  from  Norway: 
one  each  from  Oslo  and  Tonsberg  near  Christiania,  one  from  the 
Jaederen  district  of  the  extreme  southwest,  and  one  from  Trond- 
hjem  on  the  middle  western  coast.  The  Oslo  crania,1  from  the 
coast  of  the  Christiania  Fjord,  are  in  large  measure  dolicho- 
cephalic, the  Proto-Australoid,  Mediterranean,  and  Caspian  types 
being  present  in  this  order  of  importance.  At  Tonsberg,2  some- 
what farther  inland,  the  dolichocephalic  and  brachycephalic  fac- 
tors are,  on  the  other  hand,  almost  evenly  balanced;  the  Proto- 
Australoid  type  is  still  the  most  important  single  element,  al- 
though the  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  types  have  practically 
disappeared.  The  brachycephalic  factors  are  in  the  main  Alpine, 
with  considerable  representation  of  the  Palae-Alpine  and  Mongo- 
loid. The  presence  of  this  latter  type  is  significant  in  connec- 
tion with  the  hypothesis  of  a pre-Scandinavian,  Lapp-like  popula- 
tion, since  the  Lapp  are  primarily  distinguished  by  the  very 
large  Mongoloid  factor  which  they  possess.  Taken  in  connection 
with  the  Oslo  crania,  these  from  Tonsberg  would  seem  to  repre- 
sent a mixture  of  the  former  people  with  a Lapp-like  population 
in  the  interior. 

The  Trondhjem  crania3  are  like  those  from  Oslo  in  being  dol- 
ichocephalic in  very  large  majority,  but  the  most  important  fac- 
tor is  here  not  the  Proto- Australoid,  but  the  Mediterranean.  Of 
the  brachycephalic  elements,  the  Alpine  and  Mongoloid  are  of 
equal  importance.  This  suggests  again  the  presence  of  a certain 
amount  of  Lapp  admixture,  and  the  Trondhjem  series,  taken  into 
consideration  with  all  other  data,  would  indicate  that  the  popu- 
lation here  was  derived  from  the  old  Neolithic  peoples  of  western 
Sweden,  who  had  pressed  through  the  Osterdal  and  Gudbrandsdal 
to  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  Oslo  and  Tonsberg  crania  would  then 
represent  a later  wave  of  peoples  from  Sweden,  bringing  the 
Proto-Australoid  factors  which  were  largely  absent  in  the  earlier 
immigrants. 

The  crania  from  the  Jaederen4  district  are,  most  unfortunately, 


1 Barth,  1896. 

3 Larsen,  1903. 


2 Barth,  op.  cit. 
‘Larsen,  1901. 


78 


EUROPE 


a selected  series,  and  do  not  give  a fair  picture  of  the  facts,  since 
they  were  chosen  to  prove  the  presence  here  of  a special  brachy- 
cephalic  type.  They  reveal  the  presence  of  the  Alpine  and  Ural 
types,  of  which  it  is  the  latter  which  is  really  significant,  for  it  is 
this  factor  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  mediaeval  crania  from 
Friesland,  Bremen,  and  the  North  Sea  coasts  of  Scotland,  and 
which  is  absent  or  of  very  minor  importance  in  other  parts  of  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula.  It  seems  probable,  therefore,  that  the 
localization  of  this  Ural  type  on  the  southwest  coast  of  Norway 
indicates  that  it  came  into  Scandinavia  from  the  southward,  per- 
haps from  Jutland. 

For  the  living  population  of  the  Scandinavian  region  we  pos- 
sess relatively  abundant  material,1  although  only  averages  are 
given,  so  that  determination  of  types  is  possible  only  in  a very 
general  way.  We  may  recognize  a large,  centrally  located  area 
in  which  dolichocephalic  factors  reach  their  maximum.  This  in- 
cludes the  central  and  eastern  parts  of  Norway  and  the  adjacent 
central  and  western  parts  of  Sweden.  In  Norway  the  dolicho- 
cephalic types  are  most  strongly  represented  in  the  great  valleys 
radiating  from  the  vicinity  of  Christiania,  while  in  Sweden  they 
are  to  be  found  in  the  area  west  and  northwest  of  Stockholm. 
In  southern  Sweden  and  especially  in  the  district  of  Skane,  and 
also  in  the  whole  of  the  north,  the  long  and  round  headed  ele- 
ments in  the  population  are  almost  evenly  balanced,  and  only 
in  Lapland  do  the  latter  actually  show  a majority.  The  Jaederen 
and  Stavanger  districts  of  southwestern  Norway  show  a ma- 
jority of  brachycephalic  factors  in  contrast  to  the  strongly  doli- 
chocephalic character  of  the  population  farther  east,  and  these 
continue  to  be  dominant  northward  along  almost  the  whole  of 
the  western  coast.  The  Lapps  in  the  extreme  north  are  almost 
purely  brachycephalic.2  For  Denmark  we  have  only  partial 
and  incomplete  data,  but  these  seem  to  indicate  that  the  popu- 
lation as  a whole  is  closely  comparable  to  that  in  Skane  in  south- 


1 Retzius,  G.,  1902;  Hansen,  1907-11  a and  b;  Larsen,  1905;  Arbo,  for  titles  see 
Ripley,  Bibliography. 

2 For  discussion  of  the  Lapps,  see  p.  133. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  AND  SCANDINAVIA 


79 


ern  Sweden,  i.  e.,  about  evenly  divided  between  round  and  long 
headed  types. 

The  distribution  of  stature  roughly  parallels  that  of  head- 
form  in  that  a broad  belt  of  very  tall  statures  averaging  171- 
173  cm.  extends  in  a general  east-and-west  direction  through  the 
heart  of  the  area  of  maximum  dolichocephaly.  Although  else- 
where in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  the  statures  are  shorter, 
the  population  is  everywhere  to  be  classed  as  tall,  and  the  aver- 
age falls  below  170  cm.  in  Sweden  only  in  Lapland  in  the  north, 
and  in  Norway  in  the  adjacent  northern  region  and  in  the  ex- 
treme southwest.  In  Denmark  the  stature  averages  in  general 
lower  than  in  Sweden,  the  shortest  being  found  in  the  islands  of 
Seeland  and  Lolland,  while  Jutland  appears  to  have  the  tallest 
population. 

Pigmentation  finally  shows  again  a striking  agreement  with 
both  head-form  and  stature.  Blondness,  which  is  a feature  always 
associated  in  our  minds  with  Scandinavian  countries,  reaches  its 
maximum  frequency  in  the  region  extending  from  Lakes  Vennern 
and  Vettern  in  Sweden,  northwest  through  eastern  and  central 
Norway,  exactly  the  area  in  which  the  tallest  statures  and  the 
greatest  frequency  of  dolichocephalic  types  occur.  In  Sweden 
the  brunet  types  become  more  frequent  from  this  central  area 
toward  the  north,  east,  and  south,  in  a few  cases  rising  to  equal 
importance  with  the  blonds.  In  Norway  the  south  and  par- 
ticularly the  west  coast  as  far  north  as  Trondhjem,  show  the  larg- 
est proportion  of  brunets.  North  of  Trondhjem,  however,  the 
brunet  types  are  more  common  in  the  interior.  Denmark  shows 
in  general  a prevalence  of  blond  types,  which  are  more  especially 
frequent  in  the  south,  brunet  types  being  commonest  in  Jut- 
land and  in  the  islands  nearest  the  Swedish  coast. 

In  the  absence  of  any  study  of  modern  crania,  or  of  any  in- 
dividual measurements  on  the  living,  it  is  impossible  to  correlate 
these  facts  with  the  earlier  material.  We  can  only  guess  that  the 
tall,  blond,  dolichocephalic  group,  the  typical  “Nordic”  stratum, 
is  here  as  in  northern  Germany,  a blend  primarily  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Caspian  types.  This  form  is  illustrated 


80 


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on  Plate  II,  Fig.  3.  We  may  also  surmise  that  the  brachyce- 
phalic  elements  are  derived  from  several  different  sources.  In 
Skane  and  the  adjacent  Danish  islands  it  is  probably  in  the  main 
Alpine;  in  western  Jutland  and  southwestern  Norway  to  this 
Alpine  factor  is  added  a strong  tinge  of  the  Ural  type;  while 
here  and  there  in  the  interior  of  Norway,  and  increasingly  as 
one  goes  north  in  both  Norway  and  Sweden,  a third  element, 
the  Mongoloid,  is  added,  which  we  may  tentatively  regard  as 
derived  from  an  aboriginal  or  very  early  Lapp-like  population. 
An  example  of  the  mixed  Alpine  and  Ural  types  from  Jaede- 
ren  is  given  on  Plate  II,  Fig.  4. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  CENTRAL  EUROPEAN  HIGHLANDS  AND  THE  BALKAN 

PENINSULA 

I.  The  Central  European  Highlands 

The  Central  European  Highlands  may  be  taken  to  include 
the  mountainous  area  comprised  within  the  limits  of  Switzer- 
land, the  Austrian  districts  of  the  Tyrol,  Salzburg,  Carinthia, 
and  Styria,  and  in  the  west,  Savoy  and  the  mountainous  parts 
of  Dauphiny.  The  topography  of  this  region  presents  one  feature 
which  has  probably  been  of  much  significance  in  its  racial  his- 
tory, i.  e.,  the  deep  penetration  of  the  whole  mountain  area  af- 
forded by  the  valleys  of  the  Rhine,  the  Inn,  and  the  Drave.  To 
any  people  approaching  the  Highland  from  the  north  or  east 
these  valleys  are  so  many  highways  leading  easily  into  its  very 
heart,  whence  other  valleys,  such  as  those  of  the  Adige  and  the 
Rhone  lead  freely  to  the  south  and  west. 

It  is  probable  that  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Palaeolithic 
period,  the  Central  European  Highlands  were  quite  uninhabited. 
At  least,  no  traces  of  occupation  during  this  time  have  been  found 
except  along  the  northern  and  eastern  margin.  With  the  opening 
of  the  Neolithic  period,  however,  we  find  clear  evidence  of  men 
living  along  the  northern  borders,  and  beginning  to  penetrate 
into  the  interior  along  the  great  river  valleys.  Thus  far  most 
of  the  skeletal  remains  have  been  discovered  in  and  about  the 
shores  of  the  lakes  which  lie  between  the  Alps  and  the  Jura.  For 
beginning  in  this  period  and  extending  through  the  Bronze  and 
into  the  Iron  Ages  this  region  was  characterized  by  the  peculiar 
and  interesting  culture  of  the  Lake-Dwellers. 

The  crania  upon  which  conclusions  as  to  the  racial  type  of 
this  early  population  must  be  based,  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups,  those  from  graves  and  caves,  and  those  from  the  Lake- 


82 


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Dwelling  sites.1  The  former  are  predominantly  dolichocephalic, 
and  if  we  consider  the  sexes  separately  it  appears  that  the  females 
exhibit  this  feature  much  more  strongly  than  the  males.  It  fur- 
ther seems  to  be  true  that  the  earlier  sites  show  a larger  pro- 
portion of  dolichocephalic  crania  than  the  later.  The  Lake- 
Dweller  crania,  on  the  other  hand,  are  predominantly  brachy- 
cephalic  with  little  difference  between  the  sexes.  If  we  compare 
those  of  the  early  with  those  of  the  later  part  of  the  Neolithic 
period,  a striking  contrast  is,  however,  shown  in  that  the  earlier 
are  characterized  by  a very  large  majority  of  brachy cephalic 
types,  whereas  the  later  show  almost  as  notable  a predominance 
of  dolichocephalic  forms. 

Analysis  of  the  grave  crania  shows  that  the  main  factor 
present  is  the  Mediterranean  type,  with  the  Proto-Australoid 
in  second  place,  while  the  brachycephalic  element  of  most  im- 
portance is  the  Palae-Alpine.  The  Lake-Dweller  crania  are  much 
less  perfectly  preserved,  but  as  far  as  can  be  determined,  show 
the  same  three  factors  with  the  addition  of  a small  minority  of 
the  Alpine  type.  In  stature  all  of  the  types  are  below  the 
medium. 

These  facts  would  seem  to  find  their  best  explanation  by  the 
following  hypothesis.  The  early  Neolithic  population  in  the 
region  between  the  Jura  and  the  Alps  was  primarily  of  the  Medi- 
terranean type,  which  at  this  same  time  was  dominant  in  France 
and  which  had  incorporated  a minority  of  the  older  Palaeolithic 
Proto-Australoids.  Into  this  predominantly  dolichocephalic 
population  came  as  invaders  a wave  of  brachycephalic  Palae- 
Alpine  peoples  from  the  east  of  Europe,  moving  either  along  the 
northern  margin  of  the  Highlands  or  coming  through  them  by 
way  of  the  valley  highways.  Being  few  in  numbers  at  first,  the 
newcomers  sought  to  protect  themselves  from  the  attacks  of  the 
older  residents  by  the  device  of  building  their  villages  on  piles 
in  the  lakes.  Here  at  first  they  preserved  to  some  degree  their 
independence,  but  in  course  of  time  amalgamated  with  the  land- 
dwellers,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  Neolithic  period  these  had 

1 Schenck,  1903,  1905,  1907-10;  Studer  and  Bannwarth,  1894. 


THE  CENTRAL  EUROPEAN  HIGHLANDS 


83 


to  some  extent  lost  their  earlier  long-headedness,  while  the  Lake- 
Dwellers  themselves  became  transformed  from  a primarily 
brachycephalic  people  to  one  in  whom  the  dolichocephalic  Medi- 
terranean types  were  actually  in  the  majority. 

Whatever  the  causes  or  explanations  of  the  facts,  it  would 
seem  undeniable  that  the  end  of  the  Neolithic  period  saw  the 
population  of  the  northwest  border  in  large  measure  dolicho- 
cephalic. For  the  Bronze  period  we  have,  as  for  the  earlier,  two 
series  of  crania,  a very  small  one  from  graves  and  a larger  one 
from  Lake-Dweller  sites.  The  former  series  is  overwhelmingly 
dolichocephalic,  but  cannot  be  further  analyzed  on  account  of 
the  imperfect  nature  of  the  crania.  The  Lake-Dwellers,  if  we 
take  the  series  as  a whole,  also  show  a decided  majority  of  doli- 
chocephalic factors,  but  are  also  too  imperfect  to  admit  of  de- 
tailed analysis.  If  the  earlier  are,  however,  contrasted  with  the 
later  Bronze  sites,  a change  is  clearly  indicated,  such  that  al- 
though the  dolichocephalic  types  are  more  numerous  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  period,  the  brachycephalic  forms  take  first  place 
at  the  end. 

If  these  various  conclusions  are  justified,  we  should  have  the 
northwestern  border  of  the  Highlands,  possessing  throughout 
Neolithic  and  Bronze  times  a population  consistently  more  doli- 
chocephalic (primarily  Mediterranean)  than  was  the  case  at  the 
same  time  over  much  of  France,  and  we  should  have  to  assume 
that  the  stream  of  brachycephalic  peoples  who  throughout  this 
whole  time  were  passing  into  France,  must  have  done  so  either 
to  the  south,  by  way  of  the  Rhone  valley  or  to  the  north  along  the 
Rhine.  Only  toward  the  end  of  the  Bronze  Age  seemingly,  was 
the  lake  region  overrun. 

For  the  period  between  the  end  of  the  Bronze  Age  and  the 
close  of  the  period  of  the  Volkerwanderung  in  the  fifth  or  sixth 
century  A.  D.  little  material  is  available  from  which  we  may 
judge  of  the  types  present.  Such  data  as  there  are,  come  still 
from  the  northern  and  northwestern  border  region  in  the  main, 
and  indicate  a much  mixed  population.  A Gallic  cemetery  of 
the  Hallstadt  or  Early  Iron  Age  in  the  canton  of  Berne  shows 


84 


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the  male  population  more  strongly  dolichocephalic  than  the 
female,  and  apparently  comprising  a considerable  element  of  the 
Caspian  or  mixed  Caspian-Mediterranean  types,  together  with 
an  admixture  of  the  Alpine.  The  female  crania,  on  the  other 
hand,  suggest  the  dominance  of  the  Palae- Alpines  with  something 
of  the  older  Palaeolithic  Proto-Australoids.  Crania  supposed  to 
represent  the  Helvetii  from  the  following  or  La  Tene  period  of 
the  Iron  Age,  show  a much  larger  proportion  of  brachycephalic 
forms.  When  we  come,  however,  to  the  Teutonic  Alemani1  from 
sites  in  the  Aargau  dating  from  the  period  of  the  Volkerwan- 
derung,  we  find  evidence  of  a strong  penetration  of  “Nordic” 
forms,  of  mixed  Caspian,  Mediterranean,  and  Proto-Negroid 
types.  This  element  increases  so  that  in  the  tenth-century  graves 
the  dolichocephalic  factors  are  twice  as  strong  as  in  those  four 
or  five  centuries  earlier.  The  Burgundians,  who  held  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Rhone  and  the  area  about  Lakes  Geneva  and  Neu- 
chatel  were  in  general  similar  to  the  Alemani. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  and  of  the  evidence  from  northern 
Italy,  of  the  steady  influx  during  the  Iron  Age  of  brachycephalic 
peoples  from  the  north  into  Italy,  and  the  similar  evidence  from 
France,  we  may  regard  the  period  as  one  in  which  the  Central 
European  Highlands  were  being  flooded  by  continued  immigra- 
tions of  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  peoples  from  the  eastward,  such 
that  the  whole  region,  except  its  northwestern  border,  became 
overwhelmingly  brachycephalic.  In  the  following,  or  Volker- 
wanderung  period,  the  north  and  northwest  were  penetrated 
and  strongly  influenced  by  the  “Nordic”  dolichocephals,  such 
as  the  Alemani  and  Burgundians. 

For  the  period  from  the  twelfth  to  the  sixteenth  or  seven- 
teenth centuries  we  are  fortunate  in  having  a large  mass  of  data 
on  which  conclusions  may  be  based.  In  the  smaller  towns  it 
was  the  custom  when  the  small  graveyards  became  full,  to  ex- 
hume the  old  burials  and  stack  the  bones  and  skulls  in  the  crypts 
under  the  churches,  in  so-called  “ossuaries.”  The  number  of 
crania  from  these  ossuaries  whose  measurements  have  been  pub- 

1 Schwerz,  1916. 


THE  CENTRAL  EUROPEAN  HIGHLANDS 


85 


lished  1 runs  into  the  thousands,  and  conclusions  founded  upon 
such  abundant  data  may  be  considered  in  the  highest  degree  de- 
pendable. 

The  picture  presented  is  surprisingly  uniform.  From  Lake 
Geneva  in  the  west  to  the  upper  valley  of  the  Drave  in  the  east, 
from  the  lower  Inn  valley  in  the  north  to  that  of  the  Adige  and 
its  tributaries  in  the  south,  everywhere  the  population  is  revealed 
as  overwhelmingly  brachycephalic.  In  many  sections,  such  as 
the  Rhone  valley,  the  brachycephalic  crania  amount  to  nearly 
90  per  cent  of  the  whole  number,  the  dolichocephalic  forms  drop- 
ping to  less  than  2 per  cent.  If  the  various  series  of  crania  are 
analyzed,  it  appears  that  this  great  brachycephalic  majority  is 
composed  primarily  of  the  Alpine  and  Pate- Alpine  types;  the 
former  being  in  general  almost  twice  as  common  as  the  latter. 
There  are,  however,  sharp  local  differences.  Thus  in  the  Ziller- 
thal,  a side  valley  of  the  lower  Inn,  the  Alpine  type  is  nearly 
three  times  as  abundant  as  the  Pate-Alpine,  yet  in  the  lower 
Inn  valley  itself,  the  latter  factor  outnumbers  the  former  in  the 
proportion  of  three  to  two ! In  general,  the  Alpine  type  is  in  the 
largest  proportion  in  the  west  (Rhone  valley)  and  south  (Adige 
basin),  whereas  the  Pate-Alpine  is  most  frequent  in  the  north 
(Lower  Inn)  and  east  (Pusterthal).  In  this  northern  and  eastern 
section,  also,  we  find  the  Ural  type  quite  strongly  represented. 
Only  in  one  small  area,  that  of  the  Zillerthal,  do  dolichocephalic 
factors  appear  in  any  strength.  Here,  however,  they  amount  to 
nearly  30  per  cent  of  the  total,  and  are  chiefly  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Proto-Australoid  types. 

With  insignificant  exceptions  the  female  crania  repeat  the 
characteristics  of  the  male,  so  that  by  the  fifteenth  century,  or 
perhaps  as  early  as  the  twelfth,  the  population  of  the  whole  of 
the  Central  European  Highlands  had  become  almost  purely 
brachycephalic;  of  the  older  dolichocephalic  types  which  had 
prevailed  at  least  in  the  northwest,  well  down  into  the  Bronze 
Age,  and  of  the  great  waves  of  Baltic  dolichocephals  which  came 

1 Holl,  1884-87,  1888;  Moschen,  1897;  Pittard,  1909;  Tedeschi,  1904;  Wacker, 
1912. 


86 


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during  the  period  of  the  Volkerwanderung,  practically  no  trace 
remained. 

The  problem  of  the  presence  in  the  region  also  of  a substantial 
factor  of  the  Mongoloid  type  deserves  brief  consideration.  In 
the  early  Neolithic  Lake-Dweller  crania,  a trace  or  possible  trace 
of  this  type  may  be  found,  but  there  is  no  certain  evidence  of  its 
presence  until  the  period  between  the  twelfth  and  the  seven- 
teenth centuries.  In  the  crania  from  the  ossuaries  of  this  time 
the  Mongoloid  type  is  unmistakably  present — in  small  numbers 
in  the  Rhone  valley  in  the  west,  in  much  more  considerable  pro- 
portions in  the  Tyrol  in  the  east,  where  indeed  it  is  but  little  in- 
ferior to  the  Palae-Alpine.  It  is  possible  that  the  Mongoloid 
type  came  very  early  into  western  Europe,  and  was  driven  back 
into  the  Highlands  by  the  later  immigrants.  It  seems,  however, 
more  likely  that  it  was  a rather  late  arrival,  coming  with  the 
flood  of  Alpine  peoples  during  the  Bronze  or  even  later  times. 

Studies  of  modern  crania  from  the  Highlands  are  few  and 
confined  mainly  to  the  northern  and  northeastern  margin,  near 
Salzburg  and  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Mur.  The  picture  pre- 
sented is  in  the  main  similar  to  that  just  outlined  for  the  period 
of  the  ossuaries.  It  is  interesting  to  observe,  however,  that  there 
is  a notable  decrease  in  the  proportion  of  the  Alpine  type  from 
the  Mur  valley  north  to  Gmunden,  with  an  increase  of  the  Pake- 
Alpine,  recalling  a somewhat  similar  variation  in  the  rest  of  the 
Highlands  in  the  earlier  period. 

The  modern  population  of  the  Highlands  is  divided  linguis- 
tically into  three  unequal  portions:  the  extreme  west  is  French, 
the  south  and  southeast  speaks  Italian  or  the  related  Romansch, 
while  the  remainder  and  larger  part  is  German,  Data  on  the 
head-form  of  the  living  population  are  extremely  scanty,  although 
observations  on  stature  and  pigmentation  are  quite  complete.1 
From  these  it  appears  that  throughout  almost  the  whole  of  Swit- 
zerland the  stature  is  below  the  medium,  the  lowest  averages 
lying  just  north  and  west  of  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Rhone  and 
Rhine.  In  the  canton  of  Vaud,  in  the  extreme  west,  the  average 

1 Schwerz,  1915. 


THE  CENTRAL  EUROPEAN  HIGHLANDS 


87 


stature  attains  the  medium.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  High- 
land in  the  Tyrol  and  adjacent  districts,  shows  a considerable 
increase  in  height,  the  stature  tending  to  approximate  the  tall 
type  of  the  northern  Balkan  region. 

In  pigmentation,  the  open  country  lying  between  the  Alps 
and  the  Jura,  which  received  large  increments  of  Baltic  peoples 
during  the  period  of  the  Volkerwanderung,  is  noticeably  con- 
trasted with  the  remainder  of  the  area.  In  the  former  region, 
which  comprises  in  general  the  whole  of  the  drainage  of  the  Aar, 
there  is  a relatively  large  blond  factor  everywhere  present;  where- 
as in  most  of  the  rest  of  the  Highlands  a more  brunet  popula- 
tion is  found. 

II.  Hungary  and  the  Balkan  Peninsula 

Although  for  some  reasons  the  great  plain  of  Hungary  to- 
gether with  the  chain  of  the  Carpathians  which  encloses  it  on 
the  north  and  east,  might  well  be  considered  in  connection  with 
the  region  of  the  Russian  plains,  its  relation  to  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula is  such  that  it  is  on  the  whole  more  convenient  to  treat  the 
area  formerly  included  within  the  limits  of  Hungary,  and  also 
Rumania,  in  connection  with  the  puzzling  and  important  Bal- 
kan region. 

The  region  formerly  included  in  Hungary  comprises  two  very 
unlike  parts:  a central  and  western,  which  is  primarily  plain,  and 
an  eastern  and  northern  made  up  of  the  Siebenbiirgen  district 
and  the  whole  of  the  Carpathians,  which  is  mountainous.  The 
whole  area  is  tributary  to  the  Danube,  which  enters  and  leaves 
through  gateways  in  the  surrounding  mountain  chain,  and  serves 
to  connect  the  whole  area  on  the  one  hand  with  the  southwestern 
corner  of  the  great  Russian  plain,  and  on  the  other  with  southern 
Germany,  while  its  western  tributaries  such  as  the  Drave  and 
Sara  rise  well  within  the  mass  of  the  Central  European  High- 
lands. 

Of  the  Palaeolithic  occupants  of  this  region  we  know  little  or 
nothing,  and  even  Neolithic  remains  are  very  scarce.  From  the 


88 


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western  and  southwestern  portions  of  the  plains  area,  however, 
a few  crania  of  Neolithic  age  are  known1  which  indicate  that 
the  population  at  this  time  was  primarily  of  the  Caspian  type. 
The  male  and  female  crania  differ  strongly,  however,  the  latter 
being  clearly  Alpine.  This  suggests  that  the  males  may  have 
been  an  immigrant  group  coming  into  a region  formerly  held 
by  Alpines.  Although  the  increase  of  the  brachycephalic  factors 
in  the  Central  European  Highlands,  France,  Italy,  etc.,  during 
Neolithic  and  Bronze  times,  seems  hard  to  explain  otherwise 
than  by  assuming  an  influx  from  the  east  and  southeast,  very 
little  evidence  of  their  presence,  at  least  in  the  Danube  valley, 
has  yet  come  to  light.  For  the  whole  period  lying  between  Neo- 
lithic and  Roman  times  the  data  for  Hungary  are  very  scanty, 
but  seem  to  indicate  a much  mixed  population  in  which  the  doli- 
chocephalic and  brachycephalic  factors  were  about  equally  in- 
volved, the  former  continuing  to  be  present  in  strength  at  least 
as  late  as  the  second  or  third  century  A.  D.  This  persistence  of 
Caspian  elements  in  the  Hungarian  plains  would  not  necessarily 
invalidate  the  theory  that  the  mountainous  area  to  the  south- 
west was  occupied,  intermittently  perhaps,  by  peoples  of  Palas- 
Alpine  and  Alpine  types,  moving  westward  into  the  Central 
European  Highlands.  We  have  no  early  data  whatever  on  the 
Siebenbiirgen  and  Carpathian  mountain  area,  and  these,  too, 
might  conceivably  have  had  a dominantly  brachycephalic  popu- 
lation. That  there  was  a reinforcement  of  the  Caspian  factors 
in  the  Hungarian  plains  during  the  Hallstadt  or  Early  Iron  Age 
seems  probable,  since  it  was  at  this  time  that  peoples  of  this  type 
appear  in  strength  on  the  northern  Adriatic  shore  of  Italy,  and 
made  their  influence  felt  on  the  eastern  side  of  that  sea  as  far 
south  at  least  as  Glasinac  in  Bosnia. 

The  great  migrations  of  the  period  between  the  third  and 
seventh  centuries  brought  about  extensive  changes,  and  present 
us  with  a number  of  very  puzzling  problems.  Three  different 
groups  of  peoples  poured  into  or  through  the  southeast  of  Europe 
at  this  time.  One  group  comprised  the  Goths,  Gepidse,  Lom- 

1 Virchow,  1877,  1890  a. 


THE  CENTRAL  EUROPEAN  HIGHLANDS 


89 


bards,  and  other  Teutonic-speaking  peoples  from  the  Baltic 
region,  who  both  ravaged  and  to  some  extent  settled  in  the  area ; 
another  was  made  up  of  the  Slavic  tribes,  who,  like  the  Teutons, 
both  raided  and  settled  in  the  land;  the  third  included  the  Huns, 
Avars,  and  others,  nomads  rather  than  agriculturalists,  who  for 
the  most  part  merely  swept  through  the  country,  leaving,  it  is 
supposed,  few  permanent  settlements  and  having  little  influence 
on  the  racial  characters  of  the  people. 

That  the  Teutonic  tribes  contributed  a considerable  dolicho- 
cephalic factor,  comprising  Caspian,  Mediterranean,  and  Proto- 
Negroid  types,  must  be  assumed;  but  so  far  crania  identified  as 
Gothic,  Lombard,  etc.,  have  not  been  reported  from  this  region. 
In  regard  to  the  racial  factors  brought  in  by  the  Slavic  immigra- 
tion, a very  troublesome  problem  arises.  Although  we  have  no 
crania  of  the  Slavic  period  from  the  Hungarian  plain,  Toldt1 
has  studied  those  from  Slavic  cemeteries  in  Styria  and  Carinthia 
along  its  western  border,  and  dating  from  the  seventh  to  the 
ninth  centuries  or  possibly  somewhat  later.  The  data  are  not 
wholly  comparable  with  other  materials,  but  we  can  at  least  be 
sure  that  dolichocephalic  factors  are  in  the  large  majority  in  the 
case  of  the  males,  no  brachycephalic  crania  at  all  being  found, 
and  that  the  female  crania  show  a largely  decreased  dolicho- 
cephalic factor  and  a considerable  number  of  actual  brachy- 
cephals.  It  seems  to  be  the  case,  also,  that  in  both  series 
the  Proto-Australoid  type  is  quite  strongly  represented. 

Now  this  dominant  dolichocephaly  of  these  early  mediaeval 
Slavic  crania  is  in  the  sharpest  possible  contrast  to  the  character 
of  the  modern  Slavic-speaking  population,  since  this  is  over- 
whelmingly brachycephalic  (Alpine).  Since  mediaeval  times 
there  have  been  no  great  migratory  movements  which  might 
account  for  the  complete  transformation.  We  may  account  for 
the  phenomenon  by  assuming  that  the  Slavs  were  in  their  phys- 
ical characteristics  closely  allied  to  the  various  Baltic  tribes, 
and  that  settling  here  in  a region  occupied  by  peoples  primarily 
of  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  types  (as  we  have  supposed  to  be 

1 Toldt,  1914. 


90 


EUROPE 


the  case  in  the  Central  European  Highlands),  they  have  in  the 
course  of  time  been  wholly  absorbed  racially,  although  their 
Slavic  speech  has  survived.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  believe 
that  the  original  Slavic  populations  were  quite  unlike  the  Baltic 
tribes,  and  were  primarily  brachycephalic  in  head-form,  then 
we  must  assume  these  mediaeval  crania  to  be  those  of  some  neigh- 
boring “Nordic”  tribe,  which  had  been  thoroughly  slavicized. 
As  we  shall  meet  this  problem  of  the  character  of  the  early  Slav 
again  in  a more  aggravated  form  in  Germany,  and  still  more  so 
in  Russia,  we  may  leave  the  further  discussion  of  this  very  con- 
troversial question  till  the  section  devoted  to  Russia. 

The  physical  type  of  the  Huns  and  other  Ural-Altaic  nomads 
who  formed  the  third  group  of  invaders  seems  almost  certainly 
to  have  been  primarily  Alpine,  with  some  Ural  and  Mongoloid 
factors  probably  present.  That  they  contributed  largely,  how- 
ever, to  the  slowly  developing  racial  complex  in  this  region  seems 
improbable. 

In  the  tenth  century  a new  invasion  and  conquest  of  the  Hun- 
garian region  took  place,  that  of  the  Magyars,  a semi-nomadic 
folk  of  Finno-Ugrian  speech  coming  from  the  eastern  borders  of 
the  great  Russian  steppes.  They  displaced  the  older  Slavs  from 
the  region  of  the  Hungarian  plains,  which  their  descendants 
have  continued  to  dominate  until  to-day.  There  is,  however, 
just  as  in  the  case  of  the  Slavs,  some  uncertainty  in  regard  to 
the  original  physical  characteristics  of  the  Magyar.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  neighboring  Slavs,  the  modern  Magyar  is  typically 
brachycephalic.  We  have  no  early  data,  but  we  know  that  the 
ancient  Bolgari  or  Bulgars,  a related  people  formerly  living  along 
the  Volga  River  in  the  vicinity  of  the  early  home  of  the  Magyar, 
were  in  large  majority  of  dolichocephalic  Caspian  and  Proto- 
Australoid  types.1  On  the  basis,  then,  of  their  linguistic  affiliation 
with  the  Bolgari,  we  might  be  led  to  regard  the  original  Magyar 
as  having  also  been  in  the  main  a dolichocephalic  people.  If 
so,  however,  we  should  have  to  suppose  here  again,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Slavic  crania  just  discussed,  the  complete  absorption  of 

1 Bogdanov,  1879. 


THE  CENTRAL  EUROPEAN  HIGHLANDS 


91 


the  immigrants  during  the  last  thousand  years.  No  satisfactory 
solution  of  the  problem  can  be  expected,  however,  until  we  pos- 
sess some  ancient  Magyar  crania.  The  modern  crania  appear 
to  be  in  very  large  majority  Alpine,  like  the  present  Slav. 

In  stature  the  present-day  Magyar  shows  wide  variation. 
In  the  north  and  west  the  height  is  about  medium,  but  in  the 
south  and  particularly  the  east  the  average  rises,  and  the  Szek- 
lars,  with  a stature  just  under  170  cm.,  may  be  considered  tall. 
In  pigmentation  the  Magyars  are  in  general  brunet,  although 
a considerable  proportion  of  blonds  occurs.  The  tendency  to- 
ward blondness  is  particularly  marked  in  eye-color,  blue  eyes 
being  unusually  common  for  a region  in  the  south  of  Europe. 

The  Rumanians  present  still  another  of  the  many  curious 
puzzles  of  southeastern  Europe.  They  are  sharply  differentiated 
from  their  Magyar  and  Slavic  neighbors  in  that  they  speak  a 
language  derived  from  Latin,  although  this  has  been  much  modi- 
fied by  the  inclusion  of  Slavic  words.  They  claim  to  be  the  de- 
scendants of  the  Roman  colonists  in  Dacia.  Their  present  dis- 
tribution is  one  at  variance  with  geographic  features,  in  that 
they  occupy  both  the  plains  between  the  lower  Danube  and  the 
Carpathians,  and  the  Siebenbiirgen  or  Transylvanian  mountain 
country  in  what  was  formerly  the  eastern  part  of  Hungary.  Into 
the  much-disputed  question  of  the  early  history  of  the  Ru- 
manians we  cannot  enter  here,  merely  noting  that  it  seems  now 
pretty  well  established  that  during  the  period  of  the  great  in- 
vasions, from  that  of  the  Goths  onward,  they  were  swept  out  of 
the  Danubian  plains,  and  mainly  concentrated  south  of  the 
Danube,  and  that  in  historic  times  their  movement  has  been 
in  general  northward. 

Of  early  data  on  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  Ru- 
manians there  seems  to  be  little  available,  and  the  material 
on  the  living  population  of  the  present  day  is  scanty.  It  appears, 
however,  from  the  investigations  of  Pittard  1 and  others,  that 
the  present  Rumanian  people  are  prevailingly  brachycephalic, 
but  in  varying  degree,  and  that  this  factor  is  most  pronounced 

1 Pittard,  1920  (with  bibliography),  Weisbach,  1868. 


92 


EUROPE 


in  Moldavia,  less  so  in  the  mountainous  Transylvania  region, 
and  still  less  in  Wallachia.  No  series  of  individual  measurements 
having  been  published,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  actual 
types  present,  but  it  would  seem  that  the  dominant  element  is 
the  Alpine,  with  the  dolichocephalic  factors  comprising  both 
the  Proto-Australoid  and  Mediterranean,  of  which  the  latter 
may  represent  the  actual  Roman  contribution  to  the  complex. 
In  stature  the  Rumanian  is  just  over  the  medium  (166  cm.) 
and  in  pigmentation  prevailingly  brunet. 

THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA 

For  our  purposes  the  Balkan  peninsula  may  be  defined  as 
including  the  region  lying  south  of  a line  running  from  the  west- 
ern end  of  the  Black  Sea  along  the  chain  of  the  Balkans  and 
thence  northwest  to  the  head  of  the  Adriatic.  Except  for  the 
wedge  of  lowland  occupied  in  part  by  the  Maritza  valley  and 
lying  between  the  Balkan  and  Rhodope  ranges,  practically  the 
whole  of  the  peninsula  is  a rugged  mountainous  land.  Two  geo- 
graphical features  have  been  of  importance  in  the  racial  history 
of  the  region.  Of  these  the  first  is  the  closeness  of  its  contact 
with  Asia  Minor,  the  second  its  relative  openness  to  invasion 
from  the  plains  and  steppes  of  the  north.  The  Balkan  penin- 
sula is  united  in  a double  way  with  Asia  Minor,  on  the  one 
hand  by  its  close  approach  at  the  Dardanelles  and  the  Bos- 
phorus, and  on  the  other  by  way  of  the  multitude  of  islands 
scattered  through  the  Aegean  which  have  served  as  stepping- 
stones  between  the  continents.  The  peninsulas  of  Spain  and 
Italy  are  both  separated  from  the  rest  of  Europe  to  the  north 
by  high  and  continuous  mountain  chains.  The  Balkan  penin- 
sula has  no  such  barrier,  but,  margined  as  it  is  by  the  valleys  of 
the  Danube  and  the  Save,  is  relatively  open  to  invasion  or  con- 
quest. 

For  the  Palaeolithic  period,  the  only  materials  we  have  from 
this  region  are  the  fragmentary  crania  found  at  Krapina,  in  Croa- 
tia in  the  extreme  northwest.1  There  has  been  much  discussion 

1 Gorjanovic-Kramberger,  1906. 


THE  CENTRAL  EUROPEAN  HIGHLANDS 


93 


as  to  the  accuracy  of  the  reconstruction  of  these  fragments,  and 
therefore  all  that  it  seems  safe  to  say  is  that  they  prove  the  pres- 
ence of  man  on  this  northern  frontier  of  the  Balkan  peninsula 
in  early  Palaeolithic  times,  and  that  his  physical  characteristics 
suggest  a blend  between  the  Proto-Australoid  and  Mongoloid 
types. 

Dating  from  Neolithic  times  are  a few  crania  from  the  region 
between  the  Save  and  Drave,  still  thus  on  the  extreme  northern 
borders  of  the  peninsula,  and  these  like  those  of  the  same  period 
from  the  neighboring  Hungarian  plain,  are  predominantly  doli- 
chocephalic. For  the  Bronze  Age  we  have  no  data,  but  in  the 
Hallstadt  or  Early  Iron  Age  cemeteries  at  Glasinac  in  Bosnia, 
valuable  material  has  been  found.1  Unfortunately  the  measure- 
ments of  these  crania  have  not  been  published  in  full,  so  that 
determination  of  the  types  present  is  impossible.  All  that  can 
be  said  is  that  the  crania  reveal  a greatly  mixed  population,  one 
site  showing  a strongly  dolichocephalic,  an  adjoining  one  a 
strongly  brachycephalic  people.  Much  farther  to  the  south,  in 
Greece,  our  oldest  data  are  somewhat  later,  and  comprise  a 
small  series  of  pre-Dorian  crania  from  Leukas2  and  the  Dipylon 
crania  found  at  Athens3  dating  roughly  to  the  eighth  century 
B.  C.  Those  from  Leukas,  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands  on  the 
western  coast,  show  dolichocephalic  factors  in  the  majority, 
while  the  few  Dipylon  crania  are  prevailingly  brachycephalic, 
the  Alpine  and  Ural  types  predominating. 

On  such  slender  data  it  is  impossible  to  base  conclusions  of 
real  value,  and  not  until  we  possess  information  in  regard  to  the 
early  occupants  of  the  central  and  eastern  portions  of  the  penin- 
sula can  we  attain  any  certainty  in  regard  to  the  racial  history 
of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  We  are  well-nigh  forced  by  the  evi- 
dence afforded  by  western  Europe  to  believe  that  the  trans- 
formation of  its  population,  which  began  in  Neolithic  times,  was 
due  to  long-continued  immigration  of  brachycephalic  peoples, 
who  came  from  Asia  Minor  by  way  of  the  Balkan  peninsula. 
Yet  of  their  presence  or  passage  we  have  as  yet  no  clear  indica- 

1 Weisbach,  1897.  2 Velde,  1912.  3 Virchow,  1893  b. 


94 


EUROPE 


tion  in  the  Balkan  region.  Only  in  the  case  of  the  Dorian  in- 
vasion, coming  at  the  beginning  of  the  historical  period,  and 
specifically  applying  only  to  a small  part  of  the  peninsula,  have 
we  a probable  example  of  such  a brachycephalic  drift. 

The  evidence  for  the  Alpine  character  of  the  mass  of  the 
Dorians  is  twofold  and  derived  from  data  on  the  living  popula- 
tion. Almost  the  only  adequate  material  on  the  present-day 
Greek  population  is  that  on  the  people  of  Mani,1  the  central  one 
of  the  three  peninsulas  of  southern  Peloponnesus.  Here  are  what 
are  supposed  to  be  the  purest  descendants  of  the  Dorians,  and 
their  measurements  show  that  the  dominant  factor  is  of  the  Al- 
pine type,  with  which  is  combined  a minority  of  dolichocephalic 
elements,  in  part  apparently  Proto-Australoid  and  in  part  Medi- 
terranean (?)  The  other  evidence  is  derived  from  Crete.2  Here 
the  Sphakiots  and  other  residents  of  the  western  portion  of  the 
island  are  regarded  as  direct  descendants  of  Dorian  settlers. 
It  is  precisely  in  this  section  that  we  find,  on  the  basis  of  von 
Luschan’s  measurements,  the  largest  proportion  of  Alpine  types. 
It  is  true  that  in  stature  these  western  Cretans  are  extraordinarily 
tall,  and  that  they  show  a considerable  proportion  of  blonds,  fea- 
tures which  differentiate  them  from  the  shorter,  brunet  people 
of  the  rest  of  the  island.  Yet  von  Luschan  has  shown  that  the 
tall  stature  at  least  may  be  reasonably  explained  by  local  and 
historical  causes,  and  the  evidence  on  the  whole  may  be  taken 
as  reinforcing  that  from  Mani,  to  the  effect  that  the  Dorians 
were  in  large  part  of  the  Alpine  type,  although  quite  probably 
under  the  leadership  of  a dolichocephalic  aristocracy  quite  prob- 
ably in  the  main  of  Caspian  type. 

If  we  may  judge  at  all  from  what  seems  to  have  been  occur- 
ring during  the  Iron  Age  in  Hungary  and  in  Italy,  there  must 
have  been  a considerable  influx  of  dolichocephalic  elements  in 
the  Balkan  peninsula  at  this  time;  and  in  Greece  at  least  as  late 
as  the  period  between  the  fifth  and  first  centuries  B.  C.  doli- 
chocephalic factors,  mainly  Caspian  and  Mediterranean,  were  in 
slight  preponderance.3  Perhaps  we  may  suppose  that  during 

1Schiff,  1914  b.  2 von  Luschan,  1913;  Schiff,  1914  a.  3 Virchow,  1893  b. 


THE  CENTRAL  EUROPEAN  HIGHLANDS 


95 


this  period,  which  includes  that  of  the  highest  development  of 
Hellenic  civilization,  the  aristocracy  was  composed  primarily 
of  these  dolichocephalic  types,  while  the  mass  of  the  peasant 
population  was  predominantly  Alpine.  Until,  however,  the 
classical  archaeologist  can  be  made  to  realize  that  crania  are  at 
least  as  important  as  fragmentary  inscriptions  and  therefore 
worthy  of  preservation  and  study,  and  until  the  cranial  collec- 
tions long  stored  in  Athens  are  made  available  to  students,  fur- 
ther discussion  of  the  racial  history  of  Greece  is  almost  futile. 

The  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  saw  the  beginning 
of  the  Slavic  migrations,  which  by  the  end  of  the  sixth  century 
had  overrun  most  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  Data  for  this  most 
important  period  are  lacking,  but  from  Slavonia,  in  the  extreme 
northwest,  a series  of  skulls  dating,  to  be  sure,  from  the  eleventh 
century,1  show  the  population  to  have  been  strongly  dolicho- 
cephalic. These  supposedly  Slavic  crania  raise  the  same  ques- 
tion as  in  the  case  of  those  from  Styria  and  Carinthia  discussed 
in  the  previous  section,  for  three  centuries  later  we  find  this  bor- 
der region  strongly  brachycephalic. 

How  far  the  Turkish  conquest  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  affected  the  racial  constituents  in  the  peninsula,  it  is 
hard  to  say.  The  Turks  would  have  brought,  in  the  main, 
brachycephalic  factors,  primarily  Alpine,  but  that  their  influence 
was  of  large  importance  seems  doubtful. 

The  living  population  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  is  extraor- 
dinarily diverse  from  the  linguistic  point  of  view.  In  the  north 
are  the  Slavic-speaking  Yugo-Slavs  and  Bulgarians;  in  the  west 
are  the  Albanians,  survivors  of  the  ancient  Illyrian,  pre-Slavic 
peoples;  in  the  south  are  the  Greeks;  while  in  Macedonia  and 
eastward  toward  Constantinople  are  considerable  numbers  of 
Turks. 

The  study  of  this  modern  population-  is  rendered  difficult 
from  our  point  of  view  by  the  almost  total  lack  of  individual 
measurements.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  the  whole  region 
along  the  Adriatic,  from  Istria  and  Dalmatia  south  to  Greece, 

1 Giuffrida-Ruggeri,  1908  a.  2 Pittard,  1920. 


96 


EUROPE 


shows  an  overwhelming  predominance  of  brachycephalic  factors, 
the  Alpine  type  being  apparently  more  numerous  in  the  south,  the 
Palae-Alpine  in  the  north.  The  Albanians1  show  an  interesting 
contrast  to  the  Slavic-speaking  population  in  that  they  are  evi- 
dently much  more  mixed  and  have  a large  element  of  either 
Mediterranean  or  Caspian  type;  in  the  absence  of  sufficient 
cranial  material  it  is  impossible  to  say  which.  An  example  of 
the  brachycephalic  type  of  Albanian  is  given  on  Plate  III,  Fig.  i. 
This  raises  extremely  interesting  questions,  suggesting  in  con- 
nection with  the  dolichocephalic  Neolithic  crania  from  the  Ionian 
Island  of  Leukas  that  the  underlying  stratum,  in  the  southern 
portion  of  the  peninsula  at  least,  was  comparable  to  that  in 
southern  Italy,  and  that  this  part  did  not,  in  early  times,  feel 
the  full  force  of  the  hypothetical  brachycephalic  immigration. 

Serbia  and  Bulgaria  in  general  show  a less  purely  brachy- 
cephalic population  than  that  farther  west,  the  proportion  of 
dolichocephalic  factors  being  largest  in  southeastern  Serbia  and 
southwestern  Bulgaria.  For  Macedonia  and  Thrace  there  are 
practically  no  materials,  while  for  southern  and  eastern  Greece 
all  that  can  be  said  is  that  this  area  is  less  purely  brachycephalic 
than  the  west.2 

The  variations  in  stature  in  the  Balkan  peninsula  are  con- 
siderable. A centre  of  very  tall  statures  exists  in  the  northwest, 
in  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Dalmatia,  and  its  influence  seems 
to  extend  eastward  across  the  upper  Maritza  valley  into  Bul- 
garia. Toward  the  south  the  statures  decrease,  so  that  we  pass 
from  an  average  of  about  173  cm.,  in  Bosnia,  to  one  of  165  cm. 
in  Greece.  In  pigmentation  the  people  of  the  whole  peninsula 
are  predominantly  brunet,  the  proportion  of  brunet  types  in- 
creasing from  north  to  south.  The  blond  type  of  the  Homeric 
heroes  has  apparently  long  since  been  almost  wholly  absorbed. 

Reference  may  best  be  made  here  to  the  island  of  Crete,3 
whose  importance  in  the  early  history  of  civilization  in  the  ^Egean 
area  was  so  great.  Although  large  collections  of  crania  have 

1 Haberlandt,  1919;  Pittard,  1920. 

2For  references,  see  Ripley,  1899,  Bibliography.  3 von  Luschan,  1913. 


THE  CENTRAL  EUROPEAN  HIGHLANDS 


97 


been  excavated  in  the  last  few  decades,  their  measurements  have 
not  as  yet  been  published  in  full,  so  that  analysis  of  the  data  by 
the  method  here  adopted  is  impossible.  From  the  averages, 
however,  it  seems  clear  that  the  Middle  Minoan  population  was 
prevailingly  Mediterranean  in  type,  and  that  during  the  Late 
Minoan  period,  the  proportion  of  Mediterranean  types  rapidly 
decreased,  whereas  that  of  the  Alpine  increased  until  at  the  end 
of  the  period  the  latter  was  in  the  majority.  The  modern  popu- 
lation shows  considerable  variation,  such  that  in  the  west  and 
north  the  Alpine  type  is  dominant,  while  on  the  southern  coast 
the  older  Mediterranean  is  still  strong,  and  in  parts  of  the  centre 
actually  in  the  majority. 


CHAPTER  IV 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 

I.  Germany,  Czechoslovakia,  and  Austria 

The  area  occupied  by  Germany,  the  new  state  of  Czecho- 
slovakia and  Austria,  includes  two  quite  different  kinds  of  coun- 
try. Fringing  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  and  extending  inland  for 
a distance  of  a hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  the  west  and  double 
that  in  the  east,  is  the  North  German  plain,  continuous  to  the 
west  with  the  lowlands  of  Holland  and  northern  Belgium,  and  on 
the  east  with  the  vast  plains  of  Poland  and  Russia.  South  of  this 
and  extending  to  the  northern  borders  of  the  Central  European 
Highlands,  is  a region  of  greater  relief,  upland  like  Bavaria,  hill 
and  mountain  country  as  in  western  Germany  and  Czechoslo- 
vakia and  Austria.  The  majority  of  the  rivers  drain  northward 
to  the  Baltic  or  the  North  Sea,  but  the  Danube,  rising  in  the  far 
southwest,  makes  its  way  eastward  through  the  plain  of  Hungary 
to  the  Black  Sea,  and  opens  a wide  gateway  for  the  passage  of 
cultures  and  of  peoples  coming  from  the  eastward.  While  the 
geographical  divisions  thus  run  in  a general  way  east  and  west, 
the  language  divisions  run  at  right  angles  to  them;  since,  while 
the  whole  central  and  western  portions  of  the  region  are  occupied 
by  Teutonic-speaking  peoples,  a large  area  in  the  east  comprising 
most  of  Czecho-Slovakia  and  the  northeastern  borders  of  Ger- 
many is  prevailingly  or  largely  of  Slavic  speech. 

In  studying  the  racial  history  of  this  whole  region  we  are 
able  to  begin  our  investigation  in  early  Palaeolithic  times.  In 
the  Neanderthal,  near  Diisseldorf  in  the  Rhine  valley,  was  found 
in  1856  the  incomplete  skull  which  has  become  the  type  for  one 
of  the  oldest  forms  of  man  yet  known.  The  Neanderthal  skull 
is  dolichocephalic  and  low,  and  although  the  facial  parts  are 
wanting,  on  the  analogy  of  other  crania  regarded  as  of  the  same 

98 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


99 


human  variety,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  nose  is  broad,  so  that 
the  skull  would,  on  the  basis  of  the  scheme  of  classification  here 
adopted,  belong  to  the  Proto-Australoid  type.  It  is  thus  similar 
to  the  crania  of  the  same  period  already  noted  in  France. 

From  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  area,  in  Bohemia,  two 
crania  of  Aurignacian  age,  at  the  beginning  of  the  late  Palaeolithic 
period,  are  known.  These,  the  Brunn  II  and  the  Brux  skulls,  show 
the  same  low,  dolichocephalic  forms,  but  are  again  without  the 
facial  parts.  The  face  of  the  Brunn  skull  was  probably  narrow, 
suggesting  that  the  nose  was  narrow  also,  and  if  this  is  true,  then 
we  should  have  here  the  Mediterranean  rather  than  the  Proto- 
Australoid  type,  indicating  the  same  change  of  type  in  Aurig- 
nacian times  as  already  noted  for  France.  Quite  recently  two 
crania  of  the  later  Magdalenian  period  have  been  described1 
from  Obercassel  near  Bonn.  These,  fortunately,  have  the  facial 
parts  well  preserved  and  afford  evidence  which  seems  to  corrobo- 
rate the  suggestion  just  put  forward,  for  the  male  skull  is  clearly 
a blend  between  the  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  types.  The 
female  skull,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a blend  between  the  Proto- 
Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid,  and  may  be  regarded  as  repre- 
senting the  older  Palaeolithic  stratum. 

Of  great  importance  for  the  study  of  the  racial  origins  not 
only  of  this  area  but  for  the  whole  of  Europe,  are  the  crania  from 
Offnet2  in  Bavaria,  dating  from  the  very  close  of  the  Palaeolithic 
age;  the  Azilian-Tardenoisian  period  so  called.  From  this  site 
we  have  not  merely  a single  skull  but  a series  of  fourteen  adults, 
together  with  a number  of  children.  Two  facts  of  great  impor- 
tance are  at  once  apparent  on  a study  of  these  remains.  In  the 
first  place  we  have  not  only  dolichocephalic  forms  but  also  brachy- 
cephalic,  and  of  each  more  than  one  type  is  present.  In 
the  second  place  it  is  clear  that,  as  at  Obercassel,  the  men  and 
women  of  the  community  were  by  no  means  of  the  same  type. 
Thus,  the  males  from  Offnet  show  predominantly  dolichocephalic 
factors,  while  the  females  have  a majority  of  brachycephalic 
elements.  The  types  represented  are  further  quite  contrasted,  for 

‘Verworn,  1919.  2 Schmidt,  R.  R.,  1912. 


100 


EUROPE 


the  Mediterranean  type  is  the  dominant  and  most  important 
dolichocephalic  factor  in  the  case  of  the  males,  whereas  it  is  the 
Proto-Negroid  which  is  most  strongly  represented  among  the 
dolichocephalic  minority  in  the  females.  Again,  in  the  females 
the  primary  factor  is  the  Mongoloid,  while  the  only  brachyce- 
phalic  factor  found  in  the  males  seems  to  be  the  Ural  type. 

What  conclusions  may  be  drawn  from  these  facts?  Taking 
into  consideration  the  data  from  other  parts  of  Europe,  I believe 
we  may  say  that  in  the  early  Palaeolithic  period  the  southern 
portion  of  the  area  under  discussion  was  occupied  by  people  be- 
longing primarily  to  the  Proto- Australoid  Type;  that  later,  in 
Aurignacian  times,  the  Mediterranean  type  appeared  here  as  it 
did  coincidently  in  France;  still  later,  in  Magdalenian  times,  the 
influence  of  the  Caspian  type  came  in  from  the  eastward;  while 
at  the  very  end  of  the  Palaeolithic  period  we  find  evidence  of  a 
strong  element  of  Mongoloid  type,  which  in  the  Neolithic  period 
was  to  be  so  strongly  represented  in  the  Ardennes  plateau  some- 
what farther  west.  In  connection  with  these  Mongoloids  at 
Offnet,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  Krapina  crania  from  Croa- 
tia were  possibly  also  of  this  type,  but  of  much  earlier  date,  as  if 
we  could  trace  in  this  way  the  gradual  penetration  of  central 
and  western  Europe  by  brachy cephalic  peoples  coming  from  the 
east.  Yet  the  possible  evidence  of  this  same  Mongoloid  type  in 
southern  France  and  at  Gibraltar  in  early  Palaeolithic  times  would 
suggest  perhaps  a dual  origin. 

The  influence  of  these  very  late  Palaeolithic  brachycephals 
is  not  shown  at  all  clearly  in  the  available  record  for  Neolithic 
times,  for  so  far  as  our  data  go  the  whole  of  the  region  under 
discussion  was  dominantly  dolichocephalic  throughout  this 
period.  From  the  Baltic  coast  in  Mecklenburg  and  Pommern 
to  the  upper  Rhine  valley  and  Bohemia,  from  Hesse  in  the  west 
to  Silesia  in  the  east,  the  great  majority  of  all  the  crania  pub- 
lished are  dolichocephalic;  of  well-marked  brachycephalic  crania 
there  are  practically  none.  The  contrast  thus  with  France  and 
the  Low  Countries  during  the  Neolithic  period  is  striking,  since 
there  strong  infusions  of  brachycephalic  Palae-Alpines  and  Al- 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


101 


pines  took  place.  But,  although  the  prevalent  character  of  the 
Neolithic  population  of  the  German  area  was  dolichocephalic, 
the  same  types  were  not  everywhere  predominant.  In  Mecklen- 
burg in  the  northwest  and  in  Silesia  in  the  southeast,  it  was  the 
Proto-Negroid  type  which  was  in  the  majority,  with  a minority 
of  Proto-Australoid  along  the  Baltic  shores.  In  Bohemia,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Caspian  type  was  dominant,  the  Proto-Negroid 
and  Mediterranean  taking  second  place. 

Now  if  the  generally  accepted  conclusion  is  correct,  that  cord- 
marked  pottery  is  historically  later  than  the  band-decorated 
variety,  we  have  at  once  a means,  through  the  studies  of  Schliz1 
and  Reche,2  of  determining  the  relative  age  of  these  several  doli- 
chocephalic types.  From  an  analysis  of  the  data  it  appears  that 
the  older  “Bandkeramik”  is  found  mainly  associated  with  crania 
of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types,  whereas  the  later 
cord-marked  variety  occurs  with  Caspian  and  Mediterranean 
types.  Since  the  Caspian  type  appears  relatively  weak  in  north- 
ern Germany  at  this  time,  but  is,  on  the  contrary,  the  dominant 
factor  in  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  it  seems  probable  that  it  came 
into  this  whole  region  by  way  of  the  Danube  valley. 

A further  feature  to  be  noted  is  the  curious  contrast  afforded 
by  the  German  area  with  the  neighboring  region  of  Scandinavia. 
For  whereas  the  whole  southern  shore  of  the  Baltic  east  of  Den- 
mark was  occupied  by  a nearly  pure  dolichocephalic  population, 
Sweden  and  the  Danish  islands  show  a large  proportion  of  brachy- 
cephalic  factors,  which  reached  the  Scandinavian  region  prob- 
ably along  the  North  Sea  coasts. 

With  the  coming  in  of  metal,  changes  of  considerable  magni- 
tude occurred  in  some  parts  of  the  area.  The  North  German 
plain,  Czecho-Slovakia,  and  Austria  appear  to  have  retained  the 
predominant  dolichocephaly  by  which  they  were  characterized 
throughout  Neolithic  times,  but  an  increase  in  the  proportions 
of  the  Mediterranean  type  is  to  be  noted  in  the  southeast.  The 
southwest  of  Germany,  however,  shows  a striking  change,  in  that 
here  we  find  a strong  infusion  of  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  types, 
1 Schliz,  1909  and  1913  a.  2 Reche,  1908. 


102 


EUROPE 


especially  along  the  Rhine  valley  where  they  can  be  traced  as 
far  as  Worms1  or  beyond.  They  are  also  strong  in  Bavaria,  but 
are  somewhat  less  marked  in  Wurtemberg.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  at  this  same  time  all  of  western  Europe  was  receiving 
large  accessions  of  these  types  and  particularly  of  the  Alpines. 

During  the  Hallstadt  or  Early  Iron  period  no  notable  changes 
are  evident,  unless  for  a slight  increase  of  dolichocephalic  types 
in  the  southwest.  In  general,  so  far  as  Germany  is  concerned, 
this  period  would  seem  to  have  been  one  of  quiescence,  in  which 
the  new  cultural  acquisition  spread,  but  unaccompanied  by  large- 
scale  popular  movements.  During  the  La  Tene  or  Later  Iron 
period,  however,  a new  thrust  of  brachycephalic  types  took  place. 
Austria,  Bavaria,  and  Wurtemberg  became  almost  purely  Alpine 
and  Palae-Alpine,  while  Czecho-Slovakia  shows  a large  increase 
in  these  two  factors.  It  is  to  be  noted  furthermore,  that  a con- 
siderable minority  factor  of  the  Ural  type  is  present.  Data 
from  the  northern  part  of  Germany  are  scanty  for  this  period, 
but  apparently  little  or  no  modification  of  the  previous  conditions 
took  place.  Thus  the  North  German  plain  remained  an  area 
predominantly  dolichocephalic  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
Bronze  and  Iron  Ages. 

Into  this  region  along  the  Baltic  had  come  in  early  Neolithic 
times  remnants  of  the  Palaeolithic  Proto-Australoids  and  Proto- 
Negroids  of  France  and  southern  Germany,  displaced  by  the 
incoming  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  peoples  from  the  south 
and  east.  Later  these  newer  types,  and  particularly  the  latter, 
themselves  made  their  way  into  these  northern  lands  in  force, 
and  there  in  relative  isolation  and  little  disturbed  by  the  streams 
of  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  immigrants  who  revolutionized  con- 
ditions in  central  and  western  Europe,  these  dolichocephalic 
factors  amalgamated  to  produce  that  blend,  in  the  main  of  Cas- 
pian and  Mediterranean  types,  which  has  come  to  be  called  the 
“Nordic  race.”  How  far  this  tall,  blond,  dolichocephalic  va- 
riety of  man  is  entitled  to  be  regarded  as  a pure  race;  how  and 
whence  it  acquired  its  characteristic  blondness,  together  with 

1 Bartels,  1904. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


103 


other  related  questions,  will  be  discussed  at  some  length  in  the 
final  section  of  this  book.  For  the  present  it  will  be  enough  to 
point  out  that  from  the  point  of  view  adopted  in  the  present 
study,  the  “Nordic  race”  is  primarily  a blend  of  two  radically 
different  types,  which  it  is  believed  developed  locally  in  the  Bal- 
tic lands  during  the  Neolithic  and  early  metal  ages. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  historic  period,  then — roughly  about 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era — the  peoples  of  Germany, 
Czecho-Slovakia,  and  Austria  seem  to  have  been  divided  into  two 
clearly  marked  groups.  In  the  south,  i.  e.,  in  the  uplands  and 
hilly  country  bordering  the  Central  European  Highlands,  the 
majority  of  the  population  were  of  the  Alpine  or  Palae-Alpine 
types,  and  the  predominance  of  these  brachycephalic  forms  ap- 
pears to  have  become  greater  the  nearer  one  approached  the 
Highlands  either  southward  toward  Switzerland  or  westward 
toward  the  Jura  and  the  uplands  of  northern  France  and  Bel- 
gium. In  the  North  German  plain,  on  the  other  hand,  the  doli- 
chocephalic factors,  which  marked  the  whole  of  the  area  in  Neo- 
lithic times,  still  survived,  these  Baltic  peoples  being  primarily 
a blend  of  the  Caspian,  Mediterranean,  and  Proto-Australoid 
types. 

During  the  Bronze  Age,  and  to  some  extent  during  the  Iron 
Age,  the  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  peoples  of  the  Central  European 
Highlands  had  exerted  a continuous  pressure  along  the  southern 
borders  of  the  region  under  discussion.  Pressing  northward, 
they,  or  fresh  increments  of  the  same  peoples  from  the  eastward, 
had  spread  almost  to  the  edge  of  the  North  German  plain,  sub- 
merging or  perhaps  driving  out  the  older  dolichocephalic  popu- 
lation. With  the  coming  of  the  historic  period  this  movement 
was  reversed,  and  the  great  southward  and  southwestward  mi- 
grations of  the  Teutonic  and  Slavic  tribes  began. 

This  movement  seems  to  have  started  at  least  as  early  as 
the  third  century  A.  D.,  but  we  do  not  begin  to  get  abundant 
data  on  physical  types  until  the  period  between  the  sixth  and 
ninth  centuries,  when  the  Volkerwanderung  was  virtually  com- 
plete. In  the  so-called  Reihengraber  or  “row-graves”  of 


104 


EUROPE 


this  period,  which  are  found  in  large  numbers  throughout  the 
whole  south,  we  have  represented  what  is  presumably  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  blending  of  this  new  immigrant  wave  with  the  older 
population.  In  Rhein-Hesse,  Baden,  and  Wurtemberg  these 
cemeteries  reveal  a population  of  medium  stature  and  overwhelm- 
ingly dolichocephalic.  Unfortunately  the  measurements  of 
these  crania  are  incomplete,  and  it  is  impossible  to  tell  with  cer- 
tainty what  are  the  types  present.  It  would  seem,  however, 
that  the  Proto-Australoid  and  Caspian  types,  both  character- 
istic of  the  old  Neolithic  population,  were  of  greatest  importance. 
In  Bavaria  the  dominance  of  dolichocephalic  forms  is  by  no  means 
so  great,  although  they  still  outnumber  the  brachycephalic  fac- 
tors in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one.  In  the  extreme  south,  how- 
ever, the  latter  elements  increase  in  importance.  In  all  of  these 
cases  the  graves  are  regarded  as  those  of  Teutonic  immigrants; 
farther  east,  however,  in  Lower  Austria  and  Czecho-Slovakia1 
the  Reihengraber  contain  the  remains  of  Slavic  peoples  and 
are  distinguished  by  objects  of  typical  Slavic  character.  Yet 
the  types  represented  in  these  Slavic  crania  from  Bohemia,  Mo- 
ravia, and  Austria  are  in  large  part  the  same  as  those  found  in 
the  Teutonic  graves  farther  west ! A difference  of  some  signif- 
icance, however,  does  appear  in  that  brachycephalic  factors  are 
more  numerous  and  indicate  a contrast  between  the  male  and 
female  portions  of  the  population.  In  Wurtemberg,  Baden,  and 
Hesse  both  sexes  show  a predominance  of  dolichocephalic  fac- 
tors; in  the  Slavic  Reihengraber,  although  this  is  true  of  the 
males  (in  whom  the  Proto-Australoid,  Caspian,  and  Proto- 
Negroid  types  appear),  the  females  have  a majority  of  the  oppo- 
site factors  and  are  in  the  main  of  Alpine  and  Palae- Alpine  types. 

These  facts  raise  questions  of  great  importance,  for  they  not 
only  bring  up  once  more  the  problem  as  to  what  the  original 
Slavic  type  really  was,  but  also  whether  there  was  any  funda- 
mental difference  between  the  Teuton  and  the  Slav.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  male  and  female  crania  might  be  explained  by 
regarding  the  Slavs  as  an  essentially  dolichocephalic  group,  who 

1 Matiega,  1891;  Niederle,  1892. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


105 


had  come  as  conquerors  and  taken  as  wives  the  women  of  the 
older,  rather  strongly  brachycephalic  population.  On  this  hy- 
pothesis the  Slav  would  thus  have  been  essentially  similar  to  the 
Teuton.  Some  light  is  thrown  on  the  question  by  the  Slavic 
crania  of  approximately  the  same  period  from  the  Baltic  coast 
in  Pommerania,  which  show  both  sexes  to  have  been  equally 
and  strongly  dolichocephalic.  This  would  seem  to  confirm  the 
belief  in  the  long-headedness  of  the  Slav.  Yet  other  explanations 
might  be  found.  Thus  the  mass  of  the  Slavic  immigrants  might 
have  been  prevailingly  of  brachycephalic  types,  but  under  the 
leadership  of  a dolichocephalic  aristocracy,  to  which  latter  class 
in  the  main  the  crania  may  by  chance  belong.  This  seems,  how- 
ever, rather  improbable.  On  the  other  hand,  it  might  be  sup- 
posed that  the  immigrants  were,  after  all,  only  pseudo-Slavs,  and 
were  really  tribes  who  were,  in  physical  type,  similar  to  the  Teu- 
tonic-speaking peoples  farther  west,  but  Slavicized  in  language 
and  culture  through  association  with  the  true  Slavs  farther  east. 
We  shall  return  to  this  problem  again  later. 

In  the  period  from  the  ninth  to  the  fourteenth  centuries  the 
south  of  Germany,  i.  e.,  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  still  retained 
a strong  majority  of  “Nordic”  dolichocephals,  at  least  among 
the  males.  In  Bavaria,  however,  the  females  are  sharply  con- 
trasted, in  that  they  have  a preponderance  of  Palas-Alpine  and 
Alpine  types.  In  Bohemia,  farther  to  the  east,  the  change  has 
already  affected  the  males,  who  now  are  like  the  females,  over- 
whelmingly brachycephalic  in  character.  In  comparison  with 
the  period  from  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  centuries  thus,  a progres- 
sive change  has  occurred,  in  that  what  had  been  an  area  marked 
by  prevailing  dolichocephaly,  due  to  the  great  immigration  of 
Baltic  tribes,  has  become  more  or  less  brachycephalized,  this 
process  being  most  complete  in  the  east  and  least  noticeable  in 
Wurtemberg  in  the  west. 

In  the  previous  period  there  was  virtually  no  material  by 
which  to  judge  of  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  population 
of  central  and  northern  Germany.  This  is  forthcoming  in  the 
period  between  the  ninth  and  the  fourteenth  centuries,  but  pre- 


106 


EUROPE 


sents  a somewhat  puzzling  situation.  In  Westphalia,  along  the 
border  of  the  Low  Countries,  the  population  seems  to  have  been 
almost  purely  dolichocephalic,  with  the  Mediterranean  type 
strongly  dominant.  In  Thuringia,  farther  eastward,  Palae-Alpine 
factors  attain  considerable  importance,  although  dolichocephalic 
types  are  still  in  the  majority.  In  Bremen1  and  in  Mecklen- 
burg,2 in  the  ancient  North  Sea  and  Baltic  stronghold  of  long- 
headed types,  the  unexpected  occurs,  for  here  brachycephalic 
types  have  almost  attained  predominance,  and  these  are,  in  the 
main,  of  Alpine  type,  in  contrast  to  the  Pake-Alpines,  who  make 
up  the  larger  part  of  the  brachycephalic  element  in  Thuringia 
and  Bohemia.  And,  also,  whereas  the  Bremen  crania  are  re- 
garded as  unquestionably  Teutonic,  those  from  Mecklenburg 
are  Slavic,  i.  e.,  Wend. 

If  now  we  contrast  the  Teutonic  and  Slavic  peoples  of  the 
ninth  to  the  twelfth  centuries,  here  in  the  north  along  the  Baltic 
shores,  with  the  same  two  peoples  in  the  south  in  the  period 
just  preceding,  a curious  result  ensues.  In  the  south,  as  in  the 
north,  we  find  pairs  of  peoples,  differing  in  language  yet  similar 
in  their  general  physical  characters.  The  northern  and  the 
southern  Teutonic  groups  are  alike  at  least  in  their  brachyce- 
phalic factors,  in  that  each  shows  this  to  be  mainly  of  Alpine 
type.  They  differ,  on  the  other  hand,  in  their  dolichocephalic 
elements,  the  northern  or  Baltic  group  being  composed  mainly 
of  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  factors,  whereas  the  southern 
group  has  a large  representation  of  the  Proto-Australoid  type. 
The  northern  group  has,  moreover,  a larger  brachycephalic  fac- 
tor than  the  southern.  The  northern  and  southern  Slavic  groups, 
on  the  other  hand,  differ  more  from  each  other  than  do  the  Teu- 
tonic. For  the  southern  group  shows  a large  factor  of  the  Palae- 
Alpine  type  which  the  northern  does  not  possess,  while  the  latter 
has  a considerable  Mediterranean  element  which  is  lacking  in 
the  south.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Teutonic  groups,  however,  the 
north  has  the  larger  proportion  of  brachycephals. 

In  the  south  the  Teutonic  and  Slavic  groups  alike  were  in- 

1 Gildermeister,  1879.  2 Asmus,  1900. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


107 


trusive  peoples,  and  apparently  prevailingly  dolichocephalic  in 
an  area  which  had  previously  been  occupied  by  a brachycephalic 
population.  In  the  north,  on  the  contrary,  only  the  Slavic  tribes 
were  immigrants,  since  the  North  German  plain  was  the  home- 
land of  the  Teutonic  tribes.  It  would  naturally  be  supposed 
that  both  Teuton  and  Slav  in  the  north  would  be  at  least  as 
strongly  dolichocephalic  as  their  respective  southern  offshoots, 
yet  in  fact  each  is  less  so,  and  both  northern  groups,  Teuton  as 
well  as  Slav,  show  an  unexpected  strength  of  brachycephalic  fac- 
tors in  a region  previously  characterized  by  long-headedness. 
How  is  this  paradox  to  be  explained?  The  Pommeranian  Slavs 
show  but  a fraction  of  the  Alpine  factors  present  in  the  Wendish 
crania  from  Mecklenburg  (which  region,  in  Neolithic  times,  it 
will  be  remembered,  was  almost  purely  dolichocephalic),  so  that 
the  Slavs  cannot  be  regarded  as  responsible  for  this  brachyce- 
phalic element;  a belief  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  the  Slavic 
crania  from  still  farther  eastward,  in  Posen  and  Prussia,  reveal 
even  a smaller  round-headed  element  than  is  found  in  Pommer- 
ania.  In  Westphalia  and  Friesland  on  the  west,  in  Denmark 
and  Sweden  on  the  north,  the  population  of  this  period  was  pre- 
vailingly dolichocephalic,  so  that  the  source  of  this  strong  Al- 
pine factor  in  both  Teuton  and  Slav  in  northwestern  Germany 
is  extremely  puzzling. 

Taking  everything  into  consideration,  so  closely  do  the  early 
Slavic  crania  resemble  the  Teutonic  that  it  is  difficult  to  avoid 
the  conclusion  that  physically  the  two  peoples  must,  at  the  period 
of  the  Volkerwanderung,  have  been  extremely  similar.  We  shall 
have  to  face  this  whole  problem  again  in  more  imperative  form 
in  dealing  with  the  population  of  Russia,  Poland,  and  Finland, 
and  to  the  section  treating  of  these  countries  the  final  discus- 
sion of  the  question  may  be  postponed. 

Let  us  return  again  to  the  consideration  of  Bavaria  and  the 
southern  portion  of  the  whole  region.  We  have  seen  that  in  the 
mediaeval  period,  between  the  sixth  and  the  fourteenth  centuries, 
the  population  of  Bavaria  had  changed  from  one  which  was  in 
majority  dolichocephalic  and  Mediterranean  in  type,  to  one  in 


108 


EUROPE 


which  these  factors  were  barely  in  excess  of  Alpine  elements, 
some  six  or  seven  centuries  later.  In  Bohemia  the  change  had 
been  more  rapid,  and  by  the  twelfth  century  the  people  here 
were  primarily  brachycephalic,  the  Palae- Alpine  type  being  mark- 
edly in  predominance.  When  next  we  are  able  to  study  the 
people  of  this  area,  the  brachycephalization  had  proceeded  much 
farther.  Ranke1  and  Ried,2  in  their  studies  of  the  great  series  of 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  century  crania  from  Bavaria,  have 
supplied  material  which  is  absolutely  conclusive,  and  this  is 
corroborated  by  the  work  of  Ammon3  and  Lapouge4  on  the  nine- 
teenth-century population  of  Baden.  Where  in  Bavaria,  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  the  proportion  of  dolichocephalic  factors  was 
still  slightly  in  excess  of  the  brachycephalic,  four  hundred  years 
later  the  actual  dolichocephalic  crania  have  dropped  to  less  than 
i per  cent,  while  the  pure  brachycephalic  crania  make  up  more 
than  80  per  cent  of  the  total;  a proportion  which  is  equalled,  if 
not  exceeded,  in  Baden  and  Austria  and  among  the  Slavic  pop- 
ulation of  Czecho-Slovakia.  With  few  exceptions  it  is  the  Al- 
pine type  which  is  everywhere  clearly  the  dominant  factor, 
although  among  the  Slavic  group  the  women  show  a large  major- 
ity of  the  Palse-Alpine  type. 

There  has  been,  thus,  in  southern  Gennany,  Austria,  and 
Czecho-Slovakia,  since  early  mediaeval  times,  a radical  change  in 
the  character  of  the  population.  From  a prevailingly  long- 
headed people  they  have  become  an  almost  purely  round-headed 
one;  yet  in  the  intervening  period  of  roughly  a thousand  years 
we  know  of  no  extensive  migrations  or  movements  which  would 
account  for  the  change.  Before  attempting  to  discuss  the  cause 
of  this  modification  we  must  first  consider  the  modern  population 
of  the  North  German  plain,  and  note  the  results  obtained  from 
the  study  of  the  living  people. 

No  investigations  comparable  with  those  in  the  south  have 
been  made  in  northern  Germany,  apparently  in  large  part  for 
reasons  which  will  be  alluded  to  in  treating  of  the  data  on  the 


1 Ranke,  1880. 

3 Ammon,  1899. 


2 Ried,  1911. 

4 Lapouge,  1893. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


109 


living  population.  We  have  available  a series  of  modern  crania 
from  Prussia,1  but  as  no  nasal  measurements  are  published  the 
determination  of  types  is  not  possible.  So  far,  however,  as  the 
relative  proportions  of  brachycephalic  and  dolichocephalic  fac- 
tors are  concerned,  the  modern  Prussians  differ  hardly  at  all  from 
the  northern  Bavarians  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies. So  that  in  this  region  where  all  the  evidence  of  early 
mediaeval  age  showed  a dominantly  dolichocephalic  population, 
we  now  have  one  in  which  the  brachycephalic  factors  are  as  com- 
pletely in  the  majority  as  in  the  south.  The  claim  thus  of  the 
domineering  Prussian  to  represent  the  dolichocephalic  “ Nordic 
race  ” is  totally  false. 

With  one  or  two  exceptions  the  anthropological  study  of  the 
living  German  people  has  been  limited.  In  Baden,  Ammon2  has 
made  an  extensive  and  valuable  investigation,  but  this  was  lim- 
ited to  the  small  area  of  the  Grand  Duchy,  and  the  only  important 
study  of  the  whole  country  has  been  that  of  the  great  eye-and- 
hair  color  census  of  school-children,  carried  out  under  Virchow’s 
direction  nearly  forty  years  ago.3  Further  study  of  the  German 
population  has  been  discouraged  or  prevented,  directly  or  in- 
directly, as  a result  apparently  of  the  abnormal  national  pride 
characteristic  of  the  people  for  the  last  two  generations.  As  a 
result  of  the  materials  published  it  had  begun  to  be  evident  that 
the  Germans  were  not  all  of  one  type,  the  tall,  fair,  long-headed 
race  of  heroes  which  had  been  set  up  as  an  ideal  and  idol.  It 
was  obvious  that  a large  proportion  were  almost  indistinguisha- 
ble, on  the  one  hand,  from  the  populations  of  Switzerland,  Bel- 
gium, and  northern  France,  and  on  the  other  from  the  despised 
Slav.  The  illusion  of  the  unity  and  supremacy  of  the  German 
must  be  preserved,  so  further  investigations  could  not  be  per- 
mitted. This  seems  the  only  possible  explanation  at  least,  of 
the  utter  absence  of  any  modern  or  general  anthropological  study 
of  the  German  people,  when  the  great  activity  of  German  an- 
thropologists in  studying  other  peoples  is  kept  in  mind. 


1 Anthropologische  Sammlungen  Deutschlands,  IV.,  Konigsberg. 

2 Ammon,  1899.  3 Virchow,  1886. 


110 


EUROPE 


This  lack  of  data  in  regard  to  the  physical  characteristics  of 
the  living  population,  which  has  been  absolute  so  far  as  regards 
all  northern  Germany,  has  recently  been  remedied  to  a slight  de- 
gree by  the  publication  of  measurements  taken  in  England  on 
German  prisoners  of  war.1  The  numbers  measured  were,  how- 
ever, too  small  to  make  the  results  more  than  tentative.  The 
data  on  stature  obtained  in  this  way  are  of  very  uncertain  value. 
Supplemented  by  other  sources,  however,  we  may  obtain  the 
following  results.  The  tallest  statures  are  to  be  found  in  the 
northwest,  in  Mecklenburg  and  Schleswig-Holstein,  where  the 
average  lies  about  173  cm.,  and  where  also  the  percentage  of  tall 
statures  (i.  e.,  those  of  170  cm.,  or  over)  is  highest.  The  shortest 
statures,  on  the  other  hand  (166-167  cm.),  are  found  in  the  south 
and  east,  in  Bavaria,  Silesia,  Posen,  and  Prussia.  The  Austrian 
and  Bohemian  populations  appear  to  be  intermediate  between 
these  two  extremes,  and  continue  the  area  of  statures  above  the 
medium  which  characterized  most  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
Central  European  Highlands. 

The  material  on  head-form  secured  by  Parsons  in  his  measure- 
ments on  war  prisoners  is  very  significant.  Taking  this  and  such 
other  data  as  are  available  it  appears  that  there  is  no  portion  of 
the  whole  area  of  Germany,  Austria,  or  Czecho-Slovakia  in  which 
the  present  population  shows  an  average  cephalic  index  which 
is  dolichocephalic.  The  nearest  approach  to  it  occurs  in  West- 
phalia and  Oldenburg,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Germany, 
where  the  average  index  is  just  over  80,  i.  e.,  almost  at  the  lower 
limit  of  brachycephaly.  Hannover,  Schleswig,  and  the  Rhineland 
lie  still  nearer  the  limit,  and  all  other  areas  are  frankly  brachy- 
cephalic.  Averages  are,  however,  as  has  already  been  pointed 
out,  of  little  real  significance,  yet  we  can  be  sure  from  the  high 
figure  of  the  average  index  in  the  whole  south  of  Germany,  in 
Austria,  and  Czecho-Slovakia  that  there  can  be  but  a small 
dolichocephalic  element  in  the  population.  In.  the  northwest, 
however,  the  lower  average  makes  it  certain  that  there  must  still 
be  in  this  region  a considerable  dolichocephalic  factor.  Here, 

1 Parsons,  1919. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


111 


therefore,  and  here  alone,  do  we  find  any  considerable  survival  of 
the  old  Neolithic  blend  of  dolichocephalic  types,  which  is  com- 
monly spoken  of  as  the  “Nordic  race.” 

For  eye  and  hair  color  we  have,  besides  the  investigations  on 
school-children  made  in  Germany  and  Austria,  the  observations 
obtained  by  Parsons  on  German  prisoners  of  war.  The  material 
derived  from  the  study  of  the  school-children  is  of  great  value  on 
account  of  the  very  large  numbers  of  individuals  observed,  that 
in  Germany  alone  amounting  to  nearly  6,000,000.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  results  are  rendered  somewhat  uncertain  on  account  of 
the  fact  that  the  color  of  both  hair  and  eyes  changes  somewhat 
in  later  life,  so  that  statistics  for  children  are  not  really  indicative 
of  the  adult  population,  which  is  likely  to  be  somewhat  more 
brunet,  since  eye  and  hair  color  tend  to  darken  with  age.  The 
data  obtained  on  the  German  prisoners  of  war  are  exempt  from 
this  difficulty,  but  lack  trustworthiness  because  of  the  small 
number  of  individuals  on  which  the  averages  for  the  different 
portions  of  the  area  are  based.  A comparison  with  the  other 
series,  however,  shows  a general  agreement,  the  proportion  of 
brunets  running  about  5 per  cent  higher  than  in  the  case  of  the 
children. 

On  the  basis  of  the  two  sets  of  observations,  the  facts  are 
very  clear.  The  whole  of  the  North  German  plain  shows  a ma- 
jority of  blond  types,  and  this  is  continued  southward  in  the 
west  through  the  Rhine  province  and  Hesse.  The  highest  per- 
centage of  blonds  is  found  in  Westphalia  and  Hannover.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  whole  of  the  south  shows  a large  brunet 
element,  which,  however,  in  no  case  attains  an  actual  majority. 
Pigmentation  and  head-form  are  thus  by  no  means  interde- 
pendent. 

Summarizing  the  data  on  the  living  population  it  appears 
that  there  is  a clear  contrast  between  the  people  living  in  the 
North  German  plain  and  those  of  the  southern  upland.  The 
former  are  tall,  strongly  blond,  and,  although  probably  the 
brachycephalic  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  factors  are  in  the  ma- 
jority, the  dolichocephalic  elements  of  the  “Nordic”  blend  are 


112 


EUROPE 


present  in  very  considerable,  although  variable  proportion.  The 
tall  stature,  blondness,  and  long-headedness  all  seem  to  reach 
the  extreme  in  the  northwest,  in  Hannover  and  Westphalia.  All 
of  the  south,  on  the  other  hand,  from  Baden  in  the  west  to  Aus- 
tria and  Czecho-Slovakia  in  the  east,  has  a population  which, 
although  above  medium  stature,  is  yet  shorter  than  that  in  the 
north,  is  much  more  commonly  brunet,  and  in  head-form  is 
overwhelmingly  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine.  This  southern  Ger- 
man type  is  illustrated  in  Plate  III,  Fig.  2. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  racially  the  people  of  this  whole 
area,  and  the  Germans  in  particular,  are  in  no  sense  a unit.  In 
the  north  and  especially  the  northwest,  much  of  the  traditional 
German  has  survived;  in  all  the  rest  of  Germany  the  “German” 
is  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  his  Slavic-speaking  neighbors 
on  the  east,  the  Swiss  in  the  south,  or  the  Belgians  and  French 
in  the  west.  The  belief  in  the  racial  purity  and  uniqueness  of 
the  German  so  ardently  upheld  and  energetically  fostered  in 
Germany  for  the  last  two  generations,  is  thus  nothing  but  a myth, 
and  the  domineering  Prussian  is  less  true  to  the  old  Germanic 
type  than  the  Hannoverian  or  Westphalian. 

Those  Germans  who,  like  Ranke,  endeavored  thirty  or  forty 
years  ago  to  account  for  the  disturbing  differences  between  the 
people  of  southern  and  northern  Germany,  explained  them  away 
by  appealing  to  environmental  influences.  The  Bavarian  was, 
it  was  true,  brachycephalic  and  in  large  measure  brunet,  but 
this  was  the  result  of  a change  brought  about  in  the  original 
“Nordic”  type  by  altitude,  differences  in  food  and  economic 
conditions,  etc.,  etc.  These  explanations  will  not,  however,  ac- 
count for  the  changes  in  the  North  German  plain,  and  the  whole 
phenomenon  can  more  rationally  be  laid  to  the  submergence 
and  absorption  of  the  original  Germanic  type  by  older  or  later- 
coming  brachycephalic  peoples.  The  phenomenon  is  not  an 
isolated  one  and  we  shall  meet  it  again  both  in  Italy  and  in 
eastern  Europe. 


Fig.  3.  Great  Russian. 


PLATE  III. 


Fig. 


South  German. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


113 


II.  Russia,  Poland,  and  Finland 

Eastern  Europe  holds  some  of  the  most  important  keys  to 
the  problems  of  the  racial  history  of  the  continent,  for  it  has  been 
both  a breeding  place  whence  streams  of  immigrants  have  spread 
westward  into  the  rest  of  Europe,  and  also  a broad  gateway 
through  which  have  passed  great  floods  of  Asiatic  peoples.  In 
its  physical  features  the  whole  area  of  Russia,  Poland,  and  Fin- 
land is  one  vast  plain : forested  and  sown  with  lakes  in  the  north, 
with  its  streams  flowing  into  the  Baltic  or  the  Arctic;  grassland 
and  steppe  in  the  south  giving  place,  toward  the  southeast,  to 
the  desert  regions  along  the  shore  of  the  Caspian  into  which  Rus- 
sia’s greatest  river,  the  Volga,  empties,  and  to  semi-arid  lands 
along  the  Black  Sea  into  which  the  other  streams  flow.  Except 
for  the  interruption  of  the  Ural  chain,  which  in  its  southern  por- 
tions is  low  and  almost  negligable,  this  great  plain  of  eastern 
Europe  is  continuous  with  the  steppe  and  desert  regions  of  Si- 
beria and  inner  Asia. 

The  whole  of  eastern  Europe  is  to-day  occupied  by  peoples 
speaking  languages  belonging  to  two  quite  different  linguistic 
stocks,  the  Indo-European  and  the  Ural-Altaic.  The  first  group, 
which  occupies  as  a single  continuous  area  the  larger  part  of  the 
territory,  comprises  the  Russians,  Poles,  Ruthenians,  and  other 
Slavic-speaking  peoples,  together  with  the  Lithuanians  and  Letts, 
whose  languages  form  a separate  branch  of  the  Indo-European 
stock.  To  this  Lithuanian  branch  belonged  also  the  ancient 
Prussians,  whose  speech  became  extinct  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. The  Ural-Altaic  peoples  live  mainly  around  the  periphery 
of  the  first  group  and  are  divisible  into  two  sections.  The  first, 
whose  languages  have  been  grouped  under  the  name  of  Finno- 
Ugric,  comprise  the  Livs  and  Esths  in  Esthonia  on  the  eastern 
shores  of  the  Baltic;  the  Finns  in  Finland;  the  Lapps  in  northern 
Finland  and  the  north  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula;  the  Samo- 
yede  along  the  Arctic  coast;  the  Votiaks,  Zyrians,  and  Permiaks 
south  of  these  along  the  Urals;  and  the  Cheremiss  and  Mordvins 
in  Kazan  and  along  the  middle  Volga.  The  second  group,  speaking 


114 


EUROPE 


Turko-Tatar  languages,  are  found  in  Kazan  and  parts  of  the  Volga 
region;  in  Orenburg  and  along  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  to  the 
Caucasus;  and  in  the  Crimea.  They  are  known  generally  as 
Tatars,  although  some,  such  as  the  Bashkir  in  the  Orenburg  re- 
gion, the  Chuvash  along  the  Volga,  and  the  Kirgiz  on  the  Cas- 
pian have  individual  names.  Allied  to  these  Turko-Tatar  tribes, 
but  speaking  a Mongol  language,  is  the  small  body  of  Kalmucks, 
who  are  neighbors  of  the  Kirgiz  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian. 

Of  the  physical  type  of  the  occupants  of  this  whole  vast  area 
during  the  earlier  prehistoric  periods  we  know  next  to  nothing. 
No  finds  of  Palaeolithic  crania  have  been  reported  as  yet,  and 
of  Neolithic  crania  we  have  but  very  few.  The  majority  of  those 
for  which  data  are  available  come  mainly  from  northwestern 
Russia,  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Ladoga  and  from  the  government 
of  Yaroslav.1  Of  crania  from  here,  two-thirds  are  dolichocephalic 
and  the  remainder  mesocephalic,  indicating  a population  with 
relatively  slight  brachycephalic  factors.  Just  what  the  types 
represented  are  it  is  impossible  to  say  on  account  of  the  frag- 
mentary character  of  the  skulls,  but  apparently  the  dolicho- 
cephalic factors  are  mainly  Pro  to- Australoid  and  Caspian.  From 
farther  south  and  west  in  Poland  and  in  the  governments  of  Kiev 
and  Poltava,  a few  crania  of  somewhat  uncertain  Neolithic  Age 
have  been  reported,  which  again  show  a large  majority  of  doli- 
chocephalic elements,  in  the  main  apparently  of  the  Caspian 
and  Mediterranean  types.  Lastly,  we  have  the  crania  from 
Rinnekalm  in  Li  viand. 2 Those  from  the  upper  layers  at  this 
site  are  of  Bronze  and  Iron  Age  or  later  date,  but  the  crania  from 
the  lowest  stratum,  which  are  believed  to  be  Neolithic  in  age, 
are  unlike  those  of  similar  age  in  the  other  parts  of  Russia,  being 
primarily  brachycephalic.  The  types  cannot  be  determined. 
The  Bronze  and  Iron  Age  crania  are  in  sharp  contrast  with  these 
older  skulls,  being  dominantly  dolichocephalic,  with  the  Proto- 
Australoid  and  Caspian  types  of  primary  importance. 

If  all  these  scattered  facts  be  taken  into  consideration,  the 
conclusion  seems  to  follow  that,  at  the  earliest  time  to  which  we 
1 Bogdanov,  1886.  2 Virchow,  1877. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


115 


can  go  back,  the  eastern  Baltic  shores  were  occupied  by  a brachy- 
cephalic  folk,  whereas  the  interior  of  western  Russia  and  Poland 
was  held  by  dolichocephalic  peoples,  in  the  north  mainly  Proto- 
Australoid  and  Caspian,  in  the  south  Caspian  and  Mediterranean. 
For  the  larger  part  of  Russia,  Finland,  and  Poland  there  are  as 
yet  no  early  data,  and  our  study  of  the  population  can  begin 
only  in  proto-historic  times. 

From  southern  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Cherson,  we 
have  two  series  of  crania  of  early  historic  or  proto-historic  date.1 
One  is  dated  between  the  sixth  and  first  centuries  B.  C.,  the  other 
between  the  first  century  B.  C.  and  the  end  of  the  first  century 
A.  D.  The  earlier  site  reveals  the  presence  of  a primarily  doli- 
chocephalic people,  much  mixed  in  type,  but  with  the  Medi- 
terranean and  Proto-Australoid  dominant,  with  a minority  of 
the  brachycephalic  Alpines.  This  is  for  the  male  crania  only, 
however.  If  we  turn  to  the  female,  we  find  the  proportions  just 
reversed,  the  Alpine  being  in  the  majority,  with  the  two  doli- 
chocephalic factors  above  mentioned  in  the  minority.  Accord- 
ing to  Schliz  the  males  represent  a colony  of  Ionian  Greeks,  the 
females,  their  wives,  taken  from  the  native  population;  definite 
proof  of  this,  however,  is  lacking.  The  later  series  shows  a male 
population  still  dominantly  long-headed,  but  of  quite  different 
character,  since  they  are  clearly  a blend  between  the  Proto- 
Negroid  and  Caspian  types;  the  female  crania  are  also  predomi- 
nantly dolichocephalic,  but  replace  the  Proto-Negroid  by  the 
Mediterranean  type.  The  unexpected  appearance  of  the  strong 
Proto-Negroid  factor  in  the  male  crania  is  puzzling,  for  in  the 
rest  of  Europe  at  this  time  it  was  nowhere  found  in  any  such 
abundance,  at  least  so  far  as  our  records  go.  It  had  been  char- 
acteristic of  the  Neolithic  peoples  of  Mecklenburg,  Denmark, 
and  southern  Sweden,  and  Schliz’s  suggestion  that  these  crania 
from  the  north  shore  of  the  Black  Sea  represent  an  early  Gothic 
migration,  antedating  their  known  southward  movement,  has 
thus  some  plausibility. 

The  archaeological  investigations  of  Bogdanov  and  others  in 

1 Schliz,  1913,  a and  b. 


116 


EUROPE 


the  kurgans  or  burial-mounds  of  central  and  western  Russia, 
afford  a large  and  very  valuable  mass  of  data  in  regard  to  the 
physical  character  of  the  peoples  of  this  region  in  the  period  from 
about  the  sixth  to  the  thirteenth  centuries.  Unfortunately,  how- 
ever, the  various  sites  differ  widely  in  date,  and  the  identification 
of  their  makers  is  far  from  certain.  Some  are  believed  to  be  pre- 
Slavic  and  either  Finnish  or  “Scythian”  or  Sarmatian;  others 
are  held  to  be  Slavic,  but  there  is  little  agreement  between  differ- 
ent authorities  on  these  points.  Their  exact  age  is  also  often 
in  doubt,  but  we  can  apparently  be  quite  sure  that  they  are  not 
Neolithic,  as  stated  by  Ripley. 

The  kurgan  data1  may  best  be  considered  in  two  geographical 
groups,  of  somewhat  different  age.  The  northern  comprises  those 
in  the  governments  of  Vitebsk,  Smolensk,  Moscow,  Riazan,  Tver, 
Yaroslav,  Nishegorod,  and  Kazan,  a region  which  forms  the 
heart  of  the  area  now  occupied  by  the  so-called  Great  Russians. 
Here,  in  the  period  between  the  ninth  and  the  twelfth  centuries, 
the  population  seems  to  have  been  primarily  dolichocephalic, 
the  Proto-Negroid  type  most  unexpectedly  being  most  impor- 
tant as  a rule,  with  the  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  as  secondary 
factors.  The  brachycephalic  element  present  as  a minority  was 
mainly  the  Palae-Alpine.  In  the  two  more  northerly  govern- 
ments of  Novgorod  and  Kostroma,2  the  conditions  were  just  the 
opposite.  Here  the  crania  show  the  Palae-Alpine  type  to  be  domi- 
nant, with  the  dolichocephalic  factors  in  the  minority;  and  this 
predominance  of  brachycephalic  elements  appears  furthermore 
to  go  back,  in  Novgorod  at  least,  to  the  Early  Iron  Age. 

The  southern  area,  in  which  lies  the  heart  of  the  Ukraine,  in- 
cludes the  governments  of  Chernigov,  Kursk,  Poltava,  Kiev, 
and  Volhynia.  In  all  of  this  region  except  Kiev,  the  kurgan 
crania  (which  date  back  as  far  as  the  sixth  century)  show,  like 
those  of  the  first  group,  a predominance  of  dolichocephalic  fac- 
tors, but  here,  instead  of  the  Proto-Negroid,  it  is  the  Caspian 
and  Mediterranean  types  which  are  of  greatest  importance.  In 


1 For  sources  see  under  Bogdanov,  in  Ripley,  1899,  Bibliography. 

2 Konstantinov-Shchipunin,  1897. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


117 


Kiev,  on  the  other  hand,  brachycephalic  elements  are  in  the 
lead,  the  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  being  about  equally  important, 
while  the  dolichocephalic  factors  are  Proto- Australoid  and  Proto- 
Negroid. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  larger  part  of  central  Russia  was, 
in  the  period  between  the  seventh  and  the  twelfth  centuries, 
occupied  by  a preponderantly  dolichocephalic  people,  who  had 
upon  their  northern  and  southwestern  borders  populations  which 
were,  on  the  contrary,  brachycephalic.  In  the  north  the  Proto- 
Negroid  and  Proto- Australoid  types  were  in  largest  proportions, 
in  the  south  the  Caspian  and  Mediterranean.  In  the  north  the 
population  comprised  peoples  belonging  to  both  the  Indo-Eu- 
ropean and  the  Finno-Ugric  groups,  the  larger  part  of  Yaroslav, 
Kostroma,  and  Nishegorod,  together  with  portions  of  Kazan, 
being  occupied  by  the  latter,  whereas  the  more  western  govern- 
ments were  held  by  Slavic  peoples.  The  south,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  occupied  in  the  main  by  a Slavic-speaking  population,  al- 
though into  it  and  through  it,  for  a thousand  years,  migratory 
hordes  from  farther  eastward  had  intermittently  passed. 

For  most  of  western  Russia  and  Poland  little  material  is  avail- 
able for  this  period.  A small  series  of  crania  from  kurgans  in 
the  governments  of  Plock  and  Kielce  in  Poland,1  dating  to  about 
the  eleventh  century,  are,  however,  known.  The  published  ac- 
counts being  incomplete,  all  that  can  be  said  is  that  the  crania 
are  almost  purely  dolichocephalic,  agreeing  in  this  respect  with 
those  from  eastern  Germany  at  this  same  time. 

In  discussing  the  racial  history  of  central  Europe  it  has  been 
shown  (p.  104)  that  the  Slavic-speaking  immigrants  into  southeast- 
ern and  eastern  Germany  and  Bohemia  in  the  sixth  and  seventh 
centuries  were  predominantly  dolichocephalic,  those  in  the  latter 
country,  at  least,  being  notable  for  the  large  proportions  of 
Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- Australoid  factors  in  their  make-up. 
Except  for  this  Proto-Negroid  element  and  a somewhat  larger 
brachycephalic  factor,  there  was  little  to  distinguish  these  Slavs 
from  the  Teutonic  tribes  of  the  Reihengraber  of  southern  Ger- 

1 Rutkovski,  1901. 


118 


EUROPE 


many  or  the  population  of  the  North  German  plain.  Physically, 
Slav  and  Teuton  seemed  closely  allied,  but  final  conclusions  in 
regard  to  the  real  type  of  the  Slav  were  deferred  until  the  data 
from  the  much  larger  area  occupied  by  them  in  Poland  and  Rus- 
sia should  have  been  examined.  This  has  now  been  done,  and 
we  are  in  a position  therefore  to  discuss  the  evidence  as  a whole. 

The  problem  of  the  racial  history  of  eastern  Europe  is  in- 
deed an  extremely  difficult  one.  In  Neolithic  times  the  popu- 
lation of  all  of  eastern  Germany,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Poland, 
and  southern,  western,  and  northwestern  Russia,  was  predomi- 
nantly dolichocephalic,  the  Proto-Australoid  type  being  every- 
where apparently  fundamental,  mixed  in  the  north  with  Proto- 
Negroid  and  Caspian,  in  the  south  mainly  with  Mediterranean, 
types.  Only  in  Livland,  on  the  eastern  Baltic  shore,  were  brachy- 
cephalic  factors  in  the  majority.  From  this  time  on  until  the 
time  of  the  Slavic  expansion  in  the  sixth  to  the  twelfth  centuries 
we  have  no  material,  but  when,  in  the  early  mediaeval  period  we 
are  once  more  able  to  study  the  population,  the  main  outlines 
of  the  picture  remain  very  much  the  same.  Slavic  hordes  had, 
meanwhile,  from  their  ancient  home  northeast  of  the  Carpa- 
thians poured  over  all  of  Gennany  as  far  as  the  Elbe,  over  Bo- 
hemia, much  of  Hungary,  and  large  parts  of  the  Balkan  peninsula, 
and  to  the  north,  northeast,  and  east  they  had  spread  through 
the  heart  of  Great  Russia  and  the  Ukraine.  Yet  everywhere 
except  in  Kiev  in  the  south,  and  in  Novgorod  in  the  north,  the 
crania  show  a dominantly  dolichocephalic  population;  the  north 
on  the  whole  true  to  its  earlier  Neolithic  types,  although  now 
with  a larger  Proto-Negroid  element,  the  south  still  mainly  char- 
acterized by  the  strength  of  its  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  ele- 
ments. In  Kiev  we  have  crania  from  what  are  regarded  as  Slavic 
as  well  as  from  non-Slavic  sites,  and  the  crania  from  both  are 
alike  in  being  primarily  of  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  types.  In 
the  north  the  same  thing  occurs,  in  that  the  series  of  Slavic  crania 
from  Novgorod  is  almost  the  exact  counterpart  of  the  supposedly 
Finnish  series  from  Kostroma.  Yet  farther  to  the  southeastward 
the  Finno-Ugrian  Bolgari  in  Kazan,  and  the  related  tribes  in  the 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


119 


governments  of  Viatka  and  Perm,  were,  like  the  main  body  of 
the  Slavs,  predominantly  dolichocephalic,  with  apparently  large 
factors  of  both  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types.  In 
the  north,  thus,  Slav  and  non-Slav  are  alike  brachycephalic ; 
in  the  centre  and  east  both  are  primarily  dolichocephalic;  while 
in  the  south,  in  Kiev,  they  are  again  both  brachycephalic.  The 
division  into  Slav  and  non-Slav  thus  ceases  to  be  significant. 

The  same  holds  true,  in  general,  also  in  the  west,  for  just  as 
Slav  and  Finnish-speaking  peoples  were  alike  in  the  east,  so 
were  Slav  and  Teuton  on  the  opposite  frontier.  The  Slavs  of 
eastern  Germany,  of  Pommern,  Posen,  and  West  Prussia,  of 
Bohemia  and  of  Moscow,  Tver  and  Yaroslav  were  in  particular 
allied  to  the  Germanic  tribes,  in  that  they  showed  a large  ele- 
ment of  the  broad-nosed  dolichocephalic  types,  although  among 
the  central  and  western  Teutons  this  was  in  larger  part  Proto- 
Australoid,  whereas  in  the  eastern,  such  as  the  Goths  and  among 
the  Slavs,  the  Proto-Negroid  was  in  the  majority. 

Two  to  four  centuries  later,  however,  by  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries  in  the  south  and  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
in  the  north,  almost  the  whole  of  the  vast  Slavic  area,  instead  of 
being  one  marked  by  prevailing  dolichocephaly,  had  become  one 
in  which  the  brachycephalic  types  were  in  large  majority.  The 
cemeteries  of  Kiev  and  Chernigov  in  the  south  and  of  Moscow  in 
the  north,  however,  differed,  in  that  in  the  former,  as  in  Bohemia, 
the  dominant  element  was  the  Pake-Alpine,  whereas  in  the  latter 
it  was  the  Alpine. 

How  could  this  complete  transformation  have  been  brought 
about  ? How  derive  an  almost  purely  brachycephalic  population 
from  one  in  large  majority  dolichocephalic  within  the  space  of 
200  to  400  years?  Our  answer  to  the  question  must  depend  in 
large  part  on  whether  the  majority  of  the  Russian  kurgans,  or 
burial-mounds,  are  accepted  as  Slavic  or  not.  If  the  crania  found 
in  these  graves,  which  date,  it  is  believed,  from  the  period  of  the 
Slavic  migrations,  are  to  be  attributed  to  the  Slavic  conquerors 
and  settlers,  then  we  have  no  choice  apparently  but  to  regard 
the  Slav  as  essentially  dolichocephalic,  and  the  almost  complete 


120 


EUROPE 


brachycephalization  must  be  due  either  to  a rapid  absorption 
of  the  Slavic  immigrants  by  a pre-Slavic,  purely  brachycephalic 
population,  or  to  a similar  wholesale  assimilation  by  the  Slav 
of  some  later  body  of  immigrants,  also  almost  exclusively  round- 
headed.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  kurgan  crania  are  declared 
to  be  non-Slavic,  and  to  represent  the  pre-Slavic  population, 
and  the  Bohemian  and  Hungarian  crania  are  held  to  be  the  re- 
mains of  Slavicized  Teutonic  peoples,  then  the  Slav  proper  may 
have  been  almost  purely  brachycephalic,  and  in  the  course  of 
a few  centuries  have  completely  assimilated  their  dolichocephalic 
predecessors  in  Russia,  whereas  the  Slavicized  Teutons  in  Bo- 
hemia, Austria,  and  Hungary  were  themselves  assimilated  by  the 
older  brachycephalic  peoples  among  whom  they  had  come. 

If  we  accept  the  Russian  kurgan  crania  as  mainly  Slavic,  and 
seek  for  evidence  of  a pre-Slavic,  brachycephalic  people  who 
could  have  absorbed  these  Slavic  immigrants  as  the  dolicho- 
cephalic Teutons  were  absorbed  by  the  older  populations  of 
Bavaria  and  Baden  among  whom  they  came,  we  must  turn  to 
the  Finno-Ugric  tribes,  whom  we  know  the  Slavs  displaced,  at 
least  in  the  whole  north  of  Russia.  At  once  we  are  involved 
in  another  maze  of  contradictions,  for  these  tribes  show  the 
most  diverse  characteristics.  The  supposedly  Finnic  kurgan 
crania  from  Kostroma  are,  as  we  have  seen,  predominantly 
brachycephalic,  although  only  barely  so;  yet  the  Bolgari  from 
Kazan,  which  is  the  adjoining  government  to  the  southeast, 
show  as  much  of  a majority  of  dolichocephalic  factors  as  the 
Slavic  kurgans  in  Nishegorod,  Riazan,  and  Tver.  The  Finns 
themselves  are,  to-day  at  least,  in  large  majority  brachy- 
cephalic, as  are  the  Esths  and  Livs  of  the  eastern  Baltic  coast, 
yet  the  crania  from  the  upper  strata  at  Rinnekalm  in  Livland 
which  are  of  mediaeval  age,  are  predominantly  dolichocephalic ! 
The  more  eastern  Finno-Ugric  tribes  present  similar  wide  di- 
vergences, so  that  it  is  quite  evident  that  we  cannot,  without 
further  consideration,  solve  our  problem  by  declaring  that  the 
Finnic  tribes  were  brachycephalic  and,  while  accepting  the  lan- 
guage and  culture  of  their  Slavic  conquerors,  nevertheless  ab- 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


121 


sorbed  them  racially.  Before  doing  so  we  must  determine,  if 
possible,  what  was  the  original  Finnish  type,  and  this,  as  will 
be  seen  later,  is  as  much  of  a puzzle  as  that  of  the  Slav ! 

There  was,  however,  another  alternative  to  account  for  the 
brachycephalization  of  the  originally  dolichocephalic  Slav,  namely 
that  they  themselves,  after  settling  in  central  and  northern  Rus- 
sia, were  overlaid  by  a later  group  of  brachycephals,  who  com- 
pletely transformed  the  older  Slavic  type,  although  exerting  little 
influence  on  the  language  or  culture.  The  only  possibility  here 
lies  in  the  Tatar  conquest  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
which  ravaged  Russia  and  held  the  country  to  tribute  for  two 
hundred  years.  But,  although  the  Mongols  and  Tatars  who  ac- 
complished this  were  almost  purely  brachycephalic  peoples,  the 
historians  are  unanimous  to  the  effect  that,  apart  from  one  or 
two  great  raids,  they  had  little  or  no  actual  contact  with  the 
Slavic  population  of  central  and  northern  Russia.  Moreover,  the 
Mongoloid  and  Ural  types,  which  are  strongly  characteristic  of 
Mongol  and  Tatar  peoples,  would,  if  the  hypothesis  of  a Tatar- 
ization  were  true,  be  found  to  be  important  elements  in  the  trans- 
formed Slavic  population.  As  a matter  of  fact,  however,  they 
hardly  appear  at  all;  so  for  the  northern  and  central  Slavs,  at 
least,  the  hypothesis  of  a Tatarization  seems  untenable. 

If  we  turn  to  southern  Russia,  the  hypothesis  of  an  originally 
dolichocephalic  Slav  meets  somewhat  different  conditions.  We 
have  no  evidence  which  would  lead  us  to  believe  that  the  Ukraine 
was  ever  occupied  by  Finno-Ugric  peoples,  so  that  they,  what- 
ever may  have  been  their  physical  type,  cannot  be  appealed  to 
as  pre-Slavic  brachycephals.  It  may  be  remembered,  however, 
that  in  the  government  of  Cherson,  which  adjoins  that  of  Kiev 
on  the  south,  the  female  crania  of  the  period  between  the  sixth 
and  first  centuries  B.  C.  were  primarily  Alpine  in  type,  and  that 
it  was  suggested  as  a possibility  that  they  represented  the  older, 
aboriginal  population,  whereas  the  dolichocephalic  males  were 
to  be  regarded  as  immigrant  conquerors.  This  is  rather  weak 
evidence,  however,  for  assuming  a predominantly  brachycephalic 
population  in  the  Ukraine  a thousand  years  or  more  later,  and 


122 


EUROPE 


particularly  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  crania  from  this 
same  region  of  Cherson  in  the  first  century  A.  D.  were,  both  male 
and  female,  predominantly  dolichocephalic.  Furthermore,  the 
Ukraine  was  the  region  through  which  swarm  after  swarm  of 
invaders  swept  from  the  east  and  north  for  centuries  prior  to 
the  period  of  Slavic  expansion,  and  some  at  least  of  these,  like 
the  Goths,  were  probably  in  the  main  dolichocephalic.  It  seems 
difficult,  therefore,  to  find  sufficient  evidence  of  a uniformly 
brachycephalic  population  in  the  Ukraine  in  the  period  imme- 
diately anterior  to  the  Slavic  migrations. 

The  alternative  possibility  of  a later  wave  of  brachycephalic 
peoples  coming  after  the  Slavic  settlement,  which  for  central 
and  northern  Russia  was  found  to  be  impossible,  here  appears, 
however,  in  a more  favorable  light.  For  not  only  did  this  region 
undergo  a long  contact  with  the  Tatar  peoples  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries  and  later,  but  it  was  swept,  time  after  time, 
before  their  advent  and  during  and  after  the  Slavic  colonization 
by  other  Asiatic  hordes,  who  were  primarily  brachycephalic. 
Contemporary  data  in  regard  to  these  Asiatic  invaders  are  not 
abundant,  but  crania  from  Tatar  graves  of  the  thirteenth 
century  in  Cherson1  and  in  the  Crimea2  show  them  to  have  been 
in  very  large  majority  of  the  Pake-Alpine  type,  with  a notable 
minority  of  the  Mongoloid.  Now  it  is  precisely  these  two  factors 
which  are  most  prominent  in  the  crania  from  Kiev  and  Cher- 
nigov, so  that  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  the  conclusion  that  a con- 
siderable part,  probably  a large  part,  of  the  brachycephalization 
of  the  Slavic  population  of  the  Ukraine  is  to  be  attributed  to  the 
influence  of  the  Tatar  and  other  Asiatic  immigrants.  This  seems 
the  more  probable,  since  in  the  Kiev  crania  of  the  sixth  century, 
which  alone  at  that  time  showed  a predominance  of  brachyce- 
phalic factors,  the  Pake-Alpine  and  Mongoloid  elements  were  not 
important;  they  only  became  so  after  the  Tatar  and  other  contact. 
Moreover,  the  Mongoloid  element  which  is  so  reasonably  to  be 
attributed  to  the  Mongol-Tatar  peoples,  is  not  found  among  the 
Slavs  of  Bohemia  or  western  Hungary  and  Austria,  so  that  among 

1 Bogdanov,  1886-87.  s Obolensky,  1892. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


123 


the  Slavs  of  the  Ukraine,  and  among  them  only,  is  this  typically 
inner  Asiatic  factor  present.  It  is  true  that  Slavic  writers  deny 
very  emphatically  that  any  intermixture  with  the  Tatars  took 
place,  but  in  view  of  the  facts  just  outlined  it  would  seem  that 
the  denial  cannot  stand. 

For  southern  Russia,  therefore,  the  hypothesis  of  the  doli- 
chocephalic Slav  seems  on  the  whole  to  meet  the  facts;  if  we 
can  find  good  reason  for  believing  that  some  at  least  of  the  Finnic 
tribes  were  brachycephalic,  it  will  also  meet  the  facts  fairly  well 
in  the  north;  and,  as  we  shall  see  when  considering  the  Finnic 
problem  later  on,  there  is  much  reason  for  this  belief.  We  have 
already  seen,  in  discussing  the  Slavic  question  in  Bohemia  and 
Austria,  that  the  assumption  that  the  Slavs  were  originally  doli- 
chocephalic and  very  similar  to  the  Teuton  was  after  all  the 
most  satisfactory. 

The  alternative  hypothesis  that  the  Russian  kurgan  crania 
were  not  those  of  Slavs,  and  that  the  original  Slavic  type  was 
brachycephalic  as  it  is  to-day,  may  be  disposed  of  briefly.  If 
kurgan  crania  in  the  north  are  not  Slavic,  they  must  be  Finnic. 
The  only  contemporary  Finno-Ugrian  crania  are  those  from  the 
Bolgari  in  Kazan  and  from  Kostroma,  and  only  the  former  agree 
with  the  crania  from  Nishegorod,  Riazan,  Moscow,  Tver,  and 
Yaroslav  in  being  predominantly  dolichocephalic.  But,  although 
they  are  comparable  in  this  very  general  respect,  the  actual  types 
present  show  striking  differences.  The  significant  feature  of  the 
other  kurgan  crania  is  the  surprisingly  large  Proto-Negroid  fac- 
tor which  is  present,  and  this  is  practically  absent  in  the  Bolgari 
series;  the  other  crania  have  as  their  main  brachycephalic  ele- 
ment the  Palae- Alpine  type,  whereas  in  the  Bolgari  this  is  replaced 
by  the  Alpine.  The  supposedly  pre-Slavic  and,  therefore,  Finnic 
crania  can  thus  hardly  be  regarded  as  allied  to  the  eastern  Finnic 
group.  The  probability  is  very  strong  that  the  people  displaced 
by  the  incoming  Slavs  in  northern  and  central  Russia  were  in 
large  part  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Finns  who  moved  north 
and  settled  in  Finland  about  the  ninth  century  or  before.  We 
must  therefore  regard  the  crania  under  discussion  as  probably 


124 


EUROPE 


Finnish.  Now,  while  the  question  of  the  original  type  of  the  Finns 
is  an  extremely  difficult  one  to  settle  with  the  data  at  present 
available,  it  seems  on  the  whole  most  probable  that  they  were 
primarily  brachycephalic.  If  this  is  true,  then  the  crania  from 
the  kurgans,  being  dolichocephalic,  cannot  be  Finnish,  and  the 
whole  theory,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  northern  portion  of  Rus- 
sia, at  least,  falls  to  the  ground. 

In  the  south,  the  problem  presents  a different  aspect.  We 
do  not  know  exactly  who  were  the  predecessors  of  the  Slavic 
peoples  in  the  Ukraine.  The  terms  Scythian  and  Sarmatian 
apply  to  what  were  certainly  much  mixed  peoples,  or  to  peoples 
of  quite  different  types.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that  at 
least  a part  of  the  Scythians  were  allied  racially  as  well  as  lin- 
guistically, to  the  early  Iranians,  and  were  in  the  main  a blend 
of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types.  The  Cherson  crania  of 
the  first  century  were,  it  may  be  remembered,  primarily  doli- 
chocephalic, so  that  we  have  grounds  for  believing  that  the  popu- 
lation of  the  Ukraine,  although  doubtless  greatly  mixed  as  a re- 
sult of  the  various  invasions  which  it  had  suffered  from  very 
early  times,  nevertheless  contained  a large  dolichocephalic  fac- 
tor prior  to  the  spread  of  the  Slavs.  A non-Slavic  or  pre-Slavic 
origin  for  the  dolichocephalic  kurgan  crania  here  is  thus  entirely 
possible,  and  so  far  the  hypothesis  of  the  brachycephalic  char- 
acter of  the  original  Slav  meets  the  facts.  It  faces,  however,  a 
serious  obstacle  in  the  kurgan  crania  of  the  seventh  century  from 
the  government  of  Volhynia.1  In  this  region,  lying  to  the  north 
and  east  of  the  Carpathians,  most  authorities  locate  the  home- 
land of  the  Slav,  and  here,  in  the  heart  of  the  area  whence  they 
spread,  the  brachycephalic  character  of  the  crania  ought  to  be 
very  clearly  marked.  Yet  in  fact  they  are  in  large  majority  doli- 
chocephalic. Unless,  therefore,  it  can  be  shown  conclusively 
that  the  crania  are  non-Slavic,  possibly  Gothic,  the  belief  in  an 
originally  round-headed  Slav  becomes  very  difficult  to  sustain. 
Unfortunately  the  archaeological  identification  of  the  site  is  un- 
certain. 


1 Olechnowicz,  1903. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


125 


Assuming,  however,  that  this  objection  is  overcome  and  that, 
as  seems  generally  admitted,  the  region  north  and  east  of  the 
Carpathians  was  a great  reservoir  whence  the  supposed  brachy- 
cephalic  Slavs  poured  out,  they  could  have  done  so  only  toward 
the  northeast  and  east,  for  the  early  Slavic  graves  in  Bohemia, 
Styria,  Carinthia,  and  all  of  eastern  Germany  reveal  a primarily 
dolichocephalic  people,  and  these  cannot  be  eliminated  and  ex- 
plained away  as  pre-Slavic,  for  the  typically  Slavic  nature  of 
the  objects  found  in  these  graves  is  apparently  without  serious 
question.  The  hypothesis  of  an  originally  brachycephalic  Slav 
thus  forces  us  to  assume  that  side  by  side  with  the  true  Slav, 
who  was  brachycephalic,  were  other  peoples,  Slavic  in  speech 
and  culture  but  dolichocephalic  and  primarily  “Nordic”  in  phys- 
ical type,  and  that  it  was  these  Slavicized  Teutons  who  spread 
westward,  while  the  true  Slavs  moved  only  toward  the  north  and 
east ! 

Such  a phenomenon  is  possible,  but  the  alternative  hypoth- 
esis that  the  Slavic  peoples  were  originally  dolichocephalic, 
seems  simpler  and  rather  more  probable.  The  crucial  point  which 
would  decide  between  the  two  rival  theories  seems  to  be  this: 
How,  if  the  Slav  were  originally  dolichocephalic  and  in  general 
“Nordic,”  can  we  account  for  the  fact  that  the  whole  of  Poland 
and  the  Slavic  part  of  eastern  Germany  became  by  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries  as  completely  brachycephalic  as  Russia  ? 
There  is  little  trace  here  in  prehistoric  times  of  any  brachyce- 
phalic population  comparable  to  that  of  the  Finns  of  central 
and  northern  Russia;  no  centuries  of  penetration  and  domina- 
tion by  central  Asiatic  hordes  as  in  the  Ukraine.  We  might  try 
to  explain  the  fact  by  saying  that  the  earlier  immigrants  were 
the  Slavicized  Teutonic  tribes,  and  that  they  were  followed  later 
by  a flood  of  true,  brachycephalic  Slavs  who  thus,  spreading  over 
the  older  layer,  accomplished  its  complete  transformation.  Yet 
the  historical  evidence  seems  to  point  in  precisely  the  opposite 
direction,  at  least  until  comparatively  modern  times,  since  we 
know  that  beginning  in  the  twelfth  century  a stream  of  Teutonic 
settlers  spread  over  Prussia,  Posen,  and  Silesia.  In  recent  times, 


126 


EUROPE 


to  be  sure,  the  current  seems  to  have  been  reversed,  at  least  in 
Posen  and  Prussia,  leading  to  the  desperate  attempts  at  German 
colonization,  the  wholesale  expropriation  of  Polish  lands  and 
the  cruel  repression  of  the  Poles  carried  out  by  the  German  Gov- 
ernment during  the  last  forty  or  fifty  years.  A definite  solution 
of  this  aspect  of  the  puzzle  seems  thus  hard  to  suggest. 

The  entire  problem  of  the  Slav  rests  in  the  balance;  plausible 
arguments  may  be  advanced  for  each  of  the  two  contrary  views, 
and  until  a much  larger  body  of  cranial  material  from  all  parts 
of  the  Slavic  area  is  available,  and  its  identification  and  dating 
can  be  made  more  accurate,  it  seems  impossible  to  reach  a defi- 
nite conclusion.  To  my  mind,  however,  the  present  evidence 
tends  to  favor  the  belief  that  the  Slav  was  originally  dolicho- 
cephalic. Some  apologies  should  perhaps  be  made  for  treating 
this  whole  question  at  so  great  a length,  but  the  importance, 
complexity,  and  far-reaching  implications  of  the  problem  seemed 
an  adequate  excuse. 

Turning  to  the  study  of  the  living  peoples  of  our  area  we  may 
first  consider  the  Slavic-speaking  population  and  then  those  of 
other  speech.  Complete  and  systematic  investigation  of  the  head- 
form  of  the  Russian  and  Polish  peoples  has  not  yet  been  made, 
although  data  based  on  small  numbers  are  available  for  the  larger 
part  of  the  area.1  The  population  may  be  grouped  in  two  divi- 
sions, one  comprising  the  majority,  being  characterized  by  vary- 
ing degrees  of  brachycephaly,  the  other  being  mesocephalic.  In 
no  portion  of  the  whole  area  are  dolichocephalic  types  present 
in  anything  but  a negligible  minority  except  where  mixture  with 
non-Slavic  peoples  is  probable. 

The  area  marked  by  predominance  of  brachycephalic  types 
includes  all  of  the  Ukraine  and  the  western  and  northern  part  of 
the  region  occupied  by  the  Great  Russians,  i.  e.,  extending  from 
the  government  of  Kursk  northward  through  Smolensk  and 
Pskov  to  Petrograd  and  Novgorod,  and  eastward  through  Mos- 


1 For  sources  see  Ripley,  1899,  Bibliography,  and  also  Galai,  1905,  Krasnov,  1900, 
Piontkovski,  1905,  Prochorov,  1903  and  1907,  Rojdestvenski,  1902,  Spiridov,  1907, 
Tschepourkovsky,  1911,  Vorobiev,  1899,  Zdroevski,  1905. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


127 


cow  and  Yaroslav  to  Kostroma  and  Nishegorod.  An  example  of 
the  Great  Russian  type  is  given  on  Plate  III,  Fig.  3.  Although 
the  average  cephalic  index  varies  little  throughout  this  whole  area, 
the  relative  proportions  of  brachycephalic  and  dolichocephalic 
individuals  are  by  no  means  everywhere  the  same,  the  percentage 
of  the  former  being  greater  among  the  Great  Russians  than  in 
the  Ukraine.  The  Great  Russians  of  the  southeast,  in  the  area 
between  the  Volga  and  the  Don,  are,  on  the  other  hand,  on  the 
average  mesocephalic,  and  show  a considerable  reduction  of  the 
brachycephalic  factors  and  a corresponding  increase  of  the  doli- 
chocephalic, due  apparently  to  admixture  between  the  Slavic 
and  Finnic  populations  such  as  the  Cheremiss,  Mordvins,  etc. 
A second  region  marked  by  similar  mesocephaly  comprises  all  of 
western  Russia,  extending  from  Volhynia  north  to  Grodno  and 
Vitebsk,  and  occupied  in  the  main  by  the  so-called  White  Rus- 
sians. The  northern  and  northwestern  parts  of  Poland,  includ- 
ing the  districts  of  Lomza,  Plock,  and  Kalicz  also  form  part  of 
this  area.  The  proportion  of  brachycephalic  individuals,  how- 
ever, is  here  about  as  great  as  in  the  Ukraine.  It  is  interesting 
and  significant,  in  connection  with  the  problem  of  the  original 
type  of  the  Slavic  peoples,  to  find  that  Volhynia  to-day  has  the 
lowest  average  cephalic  index  and  the  highest  proportion  of  doli- 
chocephalic individuals  of  any  portion  of  the  Russian  and  Polish 
area  for  which  data  have  been  published.  While  the  population 
of  northern  Poland  is,  as  just  stated,  closely  similar  in  average 
cephalic  index  to  the  White  Russians  (and  incidentally  to  the 
Teutonic  population  of  Prussia),  the  southern  Poles  in  Poland, 
Silesia,  and  in  Galicia,  together  with  the  Ruthenians,  are  in  their 
pronounced  brachycephaly  more  like  the  people  of  the  Ukraine. 

On  the  basis  of  stature  we  find  the  population  of  the  whole 
area  divided  into  several  groups.  The  taller  statures  are  found 
in  the  northwestern  portions  of  the  Great  Russian  area,  i.  e.,  in 
Pskov,  Petrograd,  and  Novgorod,  and  in  the  Ukraine  and  the 
territories  of  the  Don  and  Kuban  Cossacks.  Statures  below 
the  medium  are  found,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  Great  Russian  area,  i.  e.,  in  eastern  Novgorod,  Yaroslav, 


128 


EUROPE 


and  Kostroma,  and  in  a broad  belt  running  east  and  west  from 
Smolensk  through  Orel  and  Grodno  to  and  including  all  of  Po- 
land, where  the  average  stature  drops  in  some  cases  as  low  as 
162  cm.  The  extremely  low  figures  here  are  probably  in  consid- 
erable part  due  to  the  inclusion  of  Jews,  who  here,  as  will  be 
shown  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  them,  are  extremely  short;  As 
in  head-form,  so  in  stature,  Volhynia  stands  out  from  all  its 
neighbors  in  that  the  average  stature  is  greater.  In  Poland 
in  general,  striking  differences  are  found  between  the  nobility 
and  the  peasants,  the  former  being  well  above,  the  latter  well 
under,  medium  height.  The  difference  is  undoubtedly  in  con- 
siderable part  due  to  economic  conditions,  but  may  also  have  a 
racial  factor. 

The  study  of  the  distribution  of  the  color  of  hair  and  eyes 
gives  results  of  importance.  In  eye  color,  light  tints  everywhere 
prevail  over  dark,  the  dominance  of  light  types  being  strongest 
in  the  northwest  toward  the  Baltic.  In  hair  color,  the  reverse 
is  true,  in  that  dark  shades  are  everywhere  in  the  majority,  and 
increasingly  so  toward  the  south.  In  Poland,  however,  the  largest 
proportion  of  dark  hair  seems  to  be  found,  curiously  enough,  in 
the  north.  Combining  the  data  on  eye  and  hair  color,  it  appears 
that  blond  types  in  general  prevail  over  brunet,  this  tendency 
reaching  its  highest  development  in  the  northwest,  the  area  of 
strongly  marked  blondness  thus  adjoining  that  characteristic  of 
the  north  of  Germany.  Only  in  the  Carpathians  and  in  Podolia 
does  the  brunet  type  outnumber  the  blond. 

Comparison  of  the  data  on  the  living  with  that  derived  from 
the  early  crania  is  for  the  most  part  impossible,  since,  as  a rule, 
no  nasal  measurements  are  given.  Only  for  the  government  of 
Tver,  in  the  heart  of  the  Great  Russian  territory,  are  such  ma- 
terials available.1  This  valuable  series  shows  that  brachyce- 
phalic  factors  make  up  nearly  90  per  cent  of  the  population, 
the  Alpine  type  (with  perhaps  some  representation  of  the  Ural) 
being  in  very  large  majority. 

We  may  now  turn  to  the  non-Slavic  peoples,  and  may  begin 

1 Galai,  1905. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


129 


with  the  Lithuanians  and  Letts,  who  occupy  in  the  main  the 
former  governments  of  Kurland,  Kovno,  Vilna,  and  Grodno,  to- 
gether with  the  district  of  Suwalki  in  northern  Poland.  In  the 
mediaeval  period  these  peoples  extended  over  a somewhat  larger 
territory,  especially  toward  the  west,  where  they  reached  almost 
to  the  Vistula.  To-day  the  Lithuanians  are,  like  their  Slavic 
neighbors,  a predominantly  brachycephalic  people,  of  little  over 
medium  stature  and  strikingly  blond;  the  Letts,  living  farther 
to  the  north  about  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  are  evidently  a much  more 
mixed  folk,  and  have  a notably  larger  dolichocephalic  element; 
they  are,  like  the  Lithuanians,  strongly  blond,  but  exceed  them 
considerably  in  stature.  The  sources  of  this  strong  dolichoce- 
phalic factor  are  not  clear,  but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  on 
the  basis  of  the  finds  at  Rinnekalm  in  Livland  just  to  the  north 
of  the  modern  Lettish  territory,  we  have  evidence  of  the  domi- 
nance of  long-headed  types  from  the  Bronze  period  down  to  late 
mediaeval  times. 

All  the  other  non-Slavic  peoples  of  Russia  (except  the  German 
colonies  established  in  relatively  recent  times)  speak  languages 
belonging  to  the  Ural-Altaic  stock,  and  may  be  divided  into  three 
subdivisions:  the  Finno-Ugrians,  the  Turko-Tatars,  and  the  Mon- 
gols. The  Finno-Ugric  branch  may  itself  be  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions, the  Finnic  and  the  Ugric,  the  Samoyede  forming  a somewhat 
uncertain  third.  No  Ugrian  peoples  probably  are  to  be  found  to- 
day within  the  limits  of  European  Russia,  those  that  were  formerly 
there  having  migrated  east  of  the  Urals  some  centuries  ago.  Their 
former  territory  included,  however,  considerable  parts  of  the 
governments  of  Viatka,  Vologda,  and  Perm,  and  probably  ex- 
tended even  farther  south.  The  physical  characteristics  of  these 
tribes  will  be  discussed  in  some  detail  in  connection  with  other 
peoples  of  western  Siberia  (see  p.  337  seq.),  but  it  may  be  noted 
in  passing  that  both  Vogul  and  Ostiak  show  a large  predomi- 
nance of  dolichocephalic  factors,  the  Proto-Australoid  and  Medi- 
terranean being  of  greatest  importance. 

The  Finnic  section  may  for  convenience  be  divided  into  two 
groups,  a western  and  an  eastern.  The  first  comprises  the  Esths 


130 


EUROPE 


and  Livs  along  the  Baltic,  the  Chuds  (Vepses,  Votes,  etc.),  in 
Novgorod,  the  Finns  and  Karels,  and  the  Lapps.  The  Esths 
are  a tall  people  (the  average  stature  being  slightly  above 
170  cm.),  extremely  blond,  and  with  a large  majority  of  brachy- 
cephalic  factors.  The  Alpine  and  Palae- Alpine  types  are  of  great- 
est importance,  but  an  appreciable  Mongoloid  element  is  also 
present;  the  dolichocephalic  factors  are  of  the  Proto- Australoid 
and  Proto-Negroid  types,  both  strongly  represented  in  the  early 
Slavic  population  surrounding  them.  For  the  Chuds,  no  ma- 
terial of  value  is  available. 

The  Finns  to-day  occupy,  besides  Finland,  a considerable  part 
of  the  northern  portion  of  the  government  of  Olonetz  (where 
they  are  known  as  in  eastern  Finland  as  Karels)  and  parts  of 
the  Kola  peninsula,  and  extend  west  through  the  northern  por- 
tions of  Sweden  into  the  Tromso  district  of  Norway.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  Finns  came  into  Finland  from  the  region  south  of 
Lakes  Ladoga  and  Onega,  about  the  eighth  or  ninth  century  A.  D., 
having  been  driven  northward  by  the  advance  of  the  Slavs. 
Although  much  archaeological  work  has  been  done  in  recent  years 
in  Finland,  no  measurements  of  prehistoric  crania  have,  so  far 
as  I know,  been  published,  except  a brief  reference  to  those  found 
on  the  southern  coast  and  believed  to  date  from  the  Bronze  or 
Iron  Age.  These  are,  like  those  of  the  same  period  at  Rinne- 
kalm  in  Li  viand,  primarily  dolichocephalic,  and  are  by  some 
believed  to  be  the  remains  of  Goths.  It  is  assumed,  on  archae- 
ological grounds,  that  there  was  a pre-Finnish  population,  but 
as  to  its  characteristics  we  have  no  actual  evidence. 

The  present  population  of  Finland1  comprises  a small  pro- 
portion of  Swedish-speaking  people,  living  in  two  narrow  strips 
on  the  southern  and  western  coasts,'  who  appear  to  have  been 
settled  here  at  least  since  mediaeval  times.  The  Finns  them- 
selves may  be  divided  into  four  groups:  the  western  Finns;  the 
Tavast,  occupying  the  central  and  larger  part  of  the  country;  the 
Savolax,  toward  the  north;  and  the  Karels,  in  the  east.  In  head- 

1 Westerlund,  1902,  1904,  1913.  For  the  Russian  Finns,  see  Eliseiev,  1887,  and 
Kolmogorov,  1904. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


131 


form  these  groups  show  a regular  gradation  in  respect  to  the 
proportion  of  brachycephalic  individuals,  from  the  western  Finns, 
who  closely  resemble  the  Swedish-speaking  population  of  the 
coast  in  having  a relatively  small  proportion,  through  the  Tavasts 
and  the  Savolax  to  the  Karels,  who  have  the  largest  percentage 
of  brachycephalic  individuals.  Even  among  the  Karels,  how- 
ever, there  is  a not  inconsiderable  dolichocephalic  factor,  al- 
though they  are  certainly  in  the  majority  brachycephalic.  The 
determination  of  the  types  present  is  difficult,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  no  adequate  data  on  Finnish  crania  have  been  published. 
From  Retzius’s1  incomplete  measurements,  however,  it  is  clear 
that  the  large  majority  must  be  of  Alpine  or  Palae-Alpine  type, 
yet  a respectable  proportion  of  Mongoloid  or  Ural  types  may 
accompany  them.  In  stature  the  Finn  is  in  general  somewhat 
above  the  medium,  although  the  average  for  the  Karel  is  placed 
at  or  slightly  below  165  cm.  In  pigmentation  the  large  majority 
are  blond,  the  proportion  of  blond  types  decreasing  from  the 
western  Finns  and  Swedish-speaking  population  where  it  is  as 
large  as  in  much  of  Sweden,  through  the  Tavasts  to  the  Karels, 
among  whom  the  brunet  types  are  in  slight  majority.  An  ex- 
ample of  the  Finnish  type  is  given  on  Plate  III,  Fig.  4. 

For  the  Finn,  as  for  the  Slav,  there  is  much  divergence  of 
opinion  in  regard  to  the  original  type,  which  some  hold  to  have 
been  dolichocephalic  and  “Nordic,”  while  others  believe  the 
early  Finn  to  have  been  brachycephalic,  as  he  is  in  general  to- 
day. In  the  complete  absence  of  early  cranial  material,  any 
conclusion  must  rest  on  indirect  evidence,  and  the  problem  is 
complicated  by  the  fact  that  it  is  inextricably  bound  up  with 
that  of  the  character  of  the  early  Slav  and  the  identification  of 
the  crania  obtained  from  the  Russian  kurgans.  On  the  one  hand, 
it  may  be  observed  that  all  the  other  neighboring  and  many  of 
the  more  remote  Finnic  tribes  are  to-day,  at  least,  primarily 
brachycephalic,  and  the  Cheremiss  and  Votiak,  who  must  have 
been  the  nearest  neighbors  of  the  Finns  before  the  latter  moved 
into  Finland,  were  so  as  far  back  as  the  eleventh  century.2  To 

1 Retzius,  M.  G.,  1878.  2 Konstantinoy-Shchipunin,  1897. 


132 


EUROPE 


this  extent,  therefore,  we  seem  justified  in  regarding  the  Finn  as 
probably  also  brachycephalic.  It  might  be  contended,  however, 
that  the  Finn  could  have  been  dolichocephalic,  and  then,  if  the 
pre-Finnish  population  of  Finland  had  been  primarily  brachy- 
cephalic, the  absorption  of  this  earlier  people  might  have  the 
same  result  in  brachycephalizing  the  immigrant  Finn,  as  has 
been  suggested  in  the  parallel  case  of  the  Slav.  Yet,  if  this  had 
been  the  case,  it  would  be  logical  to  expect  that  the  earlier  Finn- 
ish immigrants  who  first  and  most  intensively  came  into  contact 
with  the  assumed  aboriginal  brachycephalic  population,  would 
show  the  maximum  amount  of  influence,  whereas  the  rear-guard, 
who  came  into  a country  already  partly  swept  of  its  earlier  occu- 
pants, should  preserve  the  original  dolichocephalic  type  in  great- 
est measure.  As  the  Finns  entered  Finland  from  the  southeast, 
we  ought,  therefore,  to  find  the  extreme  of  brachycephaly  in 
the  north  and  northwest,  and  a large  dolichocephalic  factor  sur- 
viving in  the  southeast.  Now  it  is  true  that  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  brachycephaly  is  found  among  the  so-called  Kvanes  in 
the  north,  but  in  the  east  and  southeast  among  the  Karels  the 
proportion  is  only  i or  2 per  cent  less,  and  the  strong  dolicho- 
cephalic factor  which  one  should  find  here  if  the  Finn  were  orig- 
inally dolichocephalic,  is  conspicuous  by  its  absence. 

The  facts  of  the  case  are  far  better  met,  I believe,  by  assum- 
ing that  the  Finn  was  originally  of  a predominantly  brachyce- 
phalic type,  and  the  presence  of  a dolichocephalic  factor  in  the 
population  to-day  is  to  be  accounted  for  as  follows.  It  has  been 
pointed  out  that  the  proportion  of  long-headed  individuals  in- 
creases with  great  regularity  from  east  to  west  and  from  north 
to  south,  the  largest  proportion  of  dolichocephaly  being  found 
among  the  Swedish-speaking  population  on  the  western  and 
southern  coasts.  Historically  we  know  that  Scandinavian  in- 
fluence has  been  important  in  these  sections  since  early  mediaeval 
times,  archaeologically  the  presence  of  peoples  strikingly  similar 
to  the  contemporaneous  population  of  eastern  Sweden  is  estab- 
lished at  least  as  far  back  as  the  Iron  Age  and  perhaps  earlier. 
Since,  therefore,  the  character  of  the  dolichocephalic  element  in 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


133 


the  Finnish  people  is  similar  to  that  among  the  Scandinavian 
population  of  the  adjacent  shores  of  Sweden;  since  the  intensity 
of  the  dolichocephalic  factor  decreases  in  almost  exact  proportion 
as  we  recede  from  this  area;  and  since  we  know  that  Swedish- 
speaking folk  have  been  established  on  the  coasts  of  Finland  as 
far  back  as  our  historical  knowledge  extends,  we  are  justified 
in  believing  that  the  long-headed  element  among  the  Finns  is 
not  original  but  secondary,  and  derived  from  long  association 
and  mixture  with  Scandinavian  immigrants  and  conquerors. 

The  Lapps  afford  still  another  of  the  puzzling  problems  which 
this  portion  of  Europe  presents.  They  are  a fishing  and  hunting 
folk,  and  are  found  in  the  Kola  peninsula,  northern  Finland,  in 
Vesterbotten  and  Norbotten  in  Sweden,  and  Tromso  and  Finn- 
marken  in  Norway.  Within  historic  times  they  extended  much 
farther  south,  both  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  Finland, 
and  may  in  prehistoric  times  have  occupied  the  whole  of  the 
latter  and  the  larger  part  of  the  former  regions.  Cranial  ma- 
terial from  the  Lapps  is  meagre  and  from  those  in  Scandinavia 
only;  it  is,  however,  very  significant.  The  series1  is  almost  purely 
brachycephalic,  the  dominant  type  being  the  Mongoloid,  with 
the  Alpine  a strong  second.  That  the  Lapps  are  by  no  means  a 
uniform  people  is  shown,  however,  by  the  data  on  the  living. 
Although  everywhere  short,  the  Scandinavian  Lapps2  attain 
the  extreme  in  this  particular,  with  an  average  stature  of  only 
1 50-1 53  cm.  The  Russian  Lapps3  are  somewhat  taller,  with  an 
average  of  155-156  cm.  In  head-form  there  is  an  even  greater 
difference,  in  that,  whereas  the  Scandinavian  Lapps  are  almost 
purely  brachycephalic  with  very  high  indices,  the  Russian  Lapp 
is  sometimes  actually  mesocephalic,  and  shows  a very  consider- 
able admixture  thus  of  dolichocephalic  factors.  A similar  con- 
trast exists  in  the  matter  of  pigmentation,  for  the  western  Lapp 
is  distinctly  more  brunet  than  the  eastern.  An  example  of  the 
Norwegian  Lapps  is  given  on  Plate  IV,  Fig.  1. 

The  conclusion  which  seems  to  follow  from  these  facts  is  that 


1 Mantegazza,  1880. 

3 Kelsiev,  1886;  Kharuzin,  1890  b. 


2 Bonaparte,  1885-86. 


134 


EUROPE 


the  western  or  Scandinavian  Lapp  is  the  purer  group,  the  Rus- 
sian portion  of  the  people  being  mixed  with  some  foreign  doli- 
chocephalic element.  To  what  source  must  this  long-headed 
factor  be  attributed  ? If  the  Lapps  were,  as  seems  most  probable, 
the  pre-Finnish  population  of  Finland,  and  the  Finns  were,  as 
suggested,  in  the  main  brachy cephalic,  the  dolichocephalic  fac- 
tor cannot  have  been  supplied  by  them.  We  might  attribute  it 
to  a pre-Finnish  Scandinavian  influence  for  which  Kharuzin 
finds  evidence  in  archaic  Scandinavian  words  adopted  by  the 
Lapps,  yet,  if  so,  one  would  expect  the  Lapps  of  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way to  show  the  dolichocephalic  influence  in  largest  measure, 
whereas,  in  fact,  they  show  it  least,  these  elements  being  found 
most  prominent  in  the  eastern  group.  It  can  hardly  have  been 
contributed  by  the  Russians,  since,  although  there  has  been  con- 
siderable intermixture,  the  Slavic  occupation  of  the  Kola  penin- 
sula and  northern  Olonetz  did  not  occur  until  after  they  had 
settled  Novgorod,  and  the  Slavs  there  were  already  brachyce- 
phalic  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century.  I believe  the  best  ex- 
planation of  the  mystery  is  as  follows.  In  late  Neolithic  or  per- 
haps early  Bronze  times,  the  whole  of  Finland  and  the  northern 
half,  at  least,  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  were  occupied  by 
a very  short,  brunet,  almost  purely  Mongoloid  people.  In 
southern  Finland  they  were  slightly  influenced  by  Scandinavian 
contact,  leading  to  increased  stature,  greater  proportion  of  blond- 
ness, and  some  dolichocephalic  intermixture;  and  it  was  these 
modified  Lapps  which  were  displaced  by  the  Finns  at  the  time 
of  their  immigration  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.  The  Lapps 
of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  on  the  other  hand,  were  in  the 
extreme  north  but  little  affected  by  the  Scandinavian  occupation 
of  the  coast,  and  preserved  their  original  character  largely  un- 
changed. When,  then,  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
the  Finns  began  to  press  more  strongly  on  the  Lapps  in  northern 
Finland,  these  took  refuge  in  the  Kola  peninsula  region,  rather 
than  force  their  way  into  the  relatively  limited  area  in  northern 
Norway  already  occupied  by  their  relatives.  This  relatively 
late  Lapp  pressure  and,  perhaps,  slight  penetration  in  northern 


Fig.  i.  Lapp. 


Fig.  2.  South  Italian. 


Fig. 


Portuguese. 


PLATE  IV. 


Fig.  4.  Basque. 


✓ 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


135 


Norway  would  account  for  the  statements  in  regard  to  the  late 
entrance  of  the  Lapps  into  Tromso  and  Finnmarken,  which  would 
thus  refer  only  to  this  partial  overlaying  of  the  earlier  Scandi- 
navian Lapps  by  those  from  Finland. 

The  great  prominence  of  the  Mongoloid  type  among  the  Scan- 
dinavian Lapps  raises  interesting  questions.  Nowhere  else  in 
Europe,  indeed  nowhere  else  in  the  world,  is  this  type  found  in 
so  large  a proportion,  not  even  among  the  Mongols  themselves, 
and  the  question  arises  how  to  account  for  the  concentration  of 
this  type,  relatively  rare  in  the  rest  of  Europe,  in  this  remote 
corner  of  the  continent?  Two  explanations  suggest  themselves. 
On  the  one  hand,  we  may  suppose  the  Lapps  to  have  come  from 
the  inner  Asiatic  region  westward  across  northern  Russia  in 
late  Neolithic  or  even  early  Bronze  times,  and  so  passed  into 
Finland  and  Scandinavia.  Our  only  Neolithic  crania,  however, 
'Low  no  trace  of  this  type.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  pointed 
out  in  dealing  with  the  racial  history  of  France  and  the  Central 
European  Highlands  that  there  seems  to  be  evidence  of  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Mongoloid  type  in  western  Europe  in  early  Palae- 
olithic times;  it  was  present  in  Belgium  in  the  Neolithic  period, 
and  it  would  not  be  impossible  to  suppose  that  this  ancient 
stratum  had  retreated  northward  before  the  advancing  newer 
types  and  finally  been  driven  into  the  most  remote  northern 
corner  of  the  continent.  Yet  if  this  were  so,  it  is  hard  tc  under- 
stand how,  during  so  long  a period  and  exposed  to  so  many 
vicissitudes,  the  type  could  have  retained  its  purity  to  so  con- 
siderable a degree.  For  the  present  the  solution  of  the  puzzle 
seems  difficult,  but  we  shall  return  to  it  in  a later  chapter  when 
dealing  with  the  world  history  of  the  several  types. 

The  eastern  Finnish  peoples  present  somewhat  of  a contrast 
to  those  just  considered.  They  may  be  divided  into  a northern 
and  a southern  group,  the  former  made  up  of  the  Zyrians,  Per- 
miaks,  Votiaks,  etc.,  the  latter  of  the  Cheremiss,  Mordvins,  and 
Chuvash.  The  former  group  are  in  the  governments  of  Arch- 
angel, Vologda,  Perm,  and  Viatka;  the  latter  live  on  both  sides 
of  the  Volga  from  Kazan  south  to  Tambov.  The  Chuvash  are 


136 


EUROPE 


classed  with  the  southern  group  because,  although  they  now 
speak  a Turko-Tatar  language,  there  is  much  evidence  to  lead 
us  to  believe  that  they  are  really  a Finnish  people  who  have 
lost  their  original  speech. 

The  northern  or  Permian  tribes1  are  predominantly  brachy- 
cephalic,  although  a small  minority  of  long-headed  individuals 
is  present,  are  under  medium  stature,  and  prevailingly  brunet; 
the  southern  group  are  somewhat  taller,  equally  brunet,  and  in 
head-form  rather  variable;  the  Cheremiss  and  Chuvash  being 
less,  the  Mordvin2  more,  brachycephalic  than  the  northern  group. 
Only  for  the  Chuvash  have  we  any  cranial  material,  and  this 
indicates  that  the  Proto-Australoid  and  Palae-Alpine  types  are 
of  greatest  importance,  with  the  Alpine  and  Mediterranean  com- 
ing next.  While  the  northern  groups  thus,  in  general,  resemble 
the  western  Finnish  peoples,  the  southern  has  obviously  been 
influenced  by  mixture  with  some  dolichocephalic  folk.  If  the 
theory  that  the  Slav  was  originally  dolichocephalic  be  accepted, 
the  long-headed  element  may  have  been  derived  from  them; 
otherwise  we  should  need  to  call  in  either  the  older  Ugrian 
peoples,  who  had  a considerable  dolichocephalic  factor,  or  the 
“Scythians.” 

The  Samoyedes,  a nomad  hunting  and  fishing  people  of  the 
Arctic  coast,  extend  beyond  the  limits  of  Europe  for  some  dis- 
tance eastward  along  the  Siberian  shore.  Strongly  brachyce- 
phalic and  brunet,  they  are  marked  by  an  extremely  short 
stature  (154  cm.)  and  show  in  face  and  eyes  strong  resemblances 
to  various  Mongol  and  east-Asiatic  peoples.  Analysis  of  the 
cranial  data3  shows  that  the  two  primary  factors  are  the  Pake- 
Alpine  and  Ural  types,  so  that  the  Samoyede  differs  rather 
strongly  from  the  Lapp,  in  whom  the  Mongoloid  type  was  so 
strongly  represented. 

The  Turko-Tatar  peoples  of  Russia  differ  from  the  Finno- 
Ugric  in  that,  whereas  the  latter  seem  clearly  to  have  antedated 
the  Slavs,  and  to  be  in  some  sense  aboriginal,  the  Turko-Tatars 


1 Sevastianov,  1912. 

8 Sommier,  1887. 


2 Mainov,  1891. 


CENTRAL  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE 


137 


are  for  the  most  part  of  more  recent  arrival,  and  are  the  descen- 
dants of  the  Mongol  and  Tatar  invasions  and  conquests  of  the 
twelfth  century  and  after.  The  Turko-Tatar  peoples  of  Russia 
to-day  are  divided  into  several  sections:  the  Kazan  Tatars,  the 
Bashkir  in  the  governments  of  Ufa  and  Orenburg,  the  Kirgiz 
and  Nogai  near  the  Caspian,  and  the  Tatars  of  the  Crimea  and 
the  Taurida  on  the  Black  Sea.  For  all  of  these  folk  we  have,  as 
in  the  case  of  most  of  the  Russian  area,  only  average  measure- 
ments. The  Kazan  Tatars1  are  in  head-form  about  on  the  line 
between  brachycephaly  and  mesocephaly,  those  which  are  least 
mixed  being  most  clearly  brachycephalic.  Their  stature  averages 
a little  below  the  medium,  and  in  pigmentation  they  are  pre- 
vailingly brunet.  The  Crimean  Tatars2  of  the  steppe  and  the 
Nogai3  of  Stavropol  are  somewhat  more  predominantly  brach- 
ycephalic and  taller.  The  so-called  Tatars  of  the  southern 
Crimea,  on  the  other  hand,  are  a much  mixed  people,  comprising 
remnants  of  Goths,  Greeks,  etc.,  and  show  wide  variations.  The 
Gurzoof  Tatars  of  the  southern  coast  are  in  large  majority 
brachycephalic,  whereas  the  Mountain  Tatars  and  those  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Simferopol  have  a considerable  dolichocephalic  factor 
and  are  notably  taller.  The  Bashkir4  are  very  similar  to  the 
Kazan  Tatars,  except  that  as  a rule  they  are  somewhat  taller, 
and  in  the  northwest  portion  of  their  range  show  a large  doli- 
chocephalic element  of  uncertain  origin.  The  Kirgiz  will  be  con- 
sidered in  a later  chapter  in  connection  with  the  main  body  of 
this  people,  who  are  in  western  Siberia. 

Cranial  material  for  these  Turko-Tatar  tribes  is  available 
only  from  the  Bashkir  and  Nogai.  An  analysis  of  the  data  shows 
that  the  two  groups  differ  in  considerable  degree,  for  while  both 
are  in  the  main  of  Alpine  type,  the  Bashkir  have  a large  element 
of  the  Mongoloid  type,  wrhereas  the  Nogai  have  an  equally  strong 
representation  of  the  Ural  factor.  The  presence  of  the  Mon- 
goloid element  among  the  Bashkir  is  perhaps  significant  in  rela- 
tion to  the  problem  of  its  strength  among  the  Lapps,  for  there  is 


1 Talko-Hryncewicz,  1904. 
3 Pashkin,  1912. 


2 Lijin,  1891. 

4 Weissenberg,  1892;  Abramov,  1907. 


138 


EUROPE 


some  reason  apparently  to  believe  that  the  Bashkir  were  once, 
like  the  Chuvash,  a Finnish-speaking  people,  who  have  subse- 
quently been  Tatarized. 

The  Kalmuck  Mongols  of  Astrachan  are  quite  recent  im- 
migrants and  may  best  be  considered  in  connection  with  the 
main  mass  of  the  Mongols  in  a later  chapter.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  in  passing,  that  they  are  an  almost  purely  brachyce- 
phalic  folk,  with  a large  factor  of  the  Mongoloid  type. 

The  Caucasus  region  which  forms  the  boundary  between 
Europe  and  Asia  in  the  south  might  be  considered  here,  but  its 
relations  are  on  the  whole  more  close  with  the  Asia  Minor  region, 
and  the  discussion  of  its  complex  population,  together  with  the 
many  problems  which  it  presents,  may  be  fittingly  deferred  to  a 
special  chapter  in  the  section  devoted  to  the  Asiatic  continent. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  ITALIAN  AND  SPANISH  PENINSULAS 
I.  Italy 

Next  to  the  Iberian  peninsula,  Italy  would  seem  of  all  the 
parts  of  the  European  continent  to  be  geographically  the  most 
isolated.  Cut  off  on  the  north  by  the  Alps,  and  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  the  sea,  this  long,  narrow  peninsula  might  be  ex- 
pected to  have  had  a somewhat  more  simple  racial  history  than 
much  of  the  rest  of  Europe.  Yet  the  record  tells  quite  another 
story. 

The  racial  history  of  Italy  does  not  begin  with  any  certainty 
until  Neolithic  times.  In  France  and  other  portions  of  western 
Europe  we  have  what  are,  after  all,  not  inconsiderable  remains 
from  the  Palaeolithic  period,  but,  although  the  climatic  and  other 
environmental  factors  in  the  Italian  peninsula,  then  joined  to 
northern  Africa  by  way  of  Sicily,  would  seem  to  have  been  at 
least  as  favorable  for  human  occupation  as  in  southern  France, 
almost  no  skeletal  remains  of  unquestioned  Palaeolithic  age  have 
as  yet  been  found.  The  much-discussed  Olmo  skull,  discovered 
near  Arezzo  in  Tuscany,  if  it  be  really  of  Palaeolithic  age,  would 
establish  the  presence  in  Italy  at  that  time  of  a people  charac- 
terized by  the  possession  of  a low,  dolichocephalic  skull.  Whether 
this  represents  the  Proto-Australoid  or  the  Mediterranean  type 
is  uncertain,  owing  to  the  absence  of  nasal  bones.  In  either  case, 
however,  this  would  be  in  accord  with  conditions  existing  in  early 
or  late  Palaeolithic  times  in  France. 

Even  with  the  coming  of  the  Neolithic  period,  the  data  are 
much  less  abundant  than  is  the  case  in  western  Europe  in  gen- 
eral; and  that  which  we  possess  comes  mainly  from  the  very 
end  of  this  period  and  the  beginning  of  metal  culture,  the  Eneo- 
lithic  period,  to  use  the  term  employed  by  the  Italians,  when 

139 


140 


EUROPE 


copper  but  not  bronze  was  known.  The  crania  of  this  period, 
whether  from  such  sites  as  Remedello1  in  Lombardy,  from  Lucca2 
in  Tuscany,  or  from  Latium3  still  farther  south,  show  that  the 
population  of  northern  Italy  at  least  was  already  much  mixed. 
If  it  is  legitimate  to  base  conclusions  on  such  very  scanty  data, 
it  would  seem  that  there  was  a distinct  tendency  toward  a pre- 
dominance of  dolichocephalic  forms  north  of  the  Apennines  in 
the  valley  of  the  Po  and  of  brachycephalic  ones  south  of  the  range. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  dolichocephalic  factors  were  at  this 
same  time  also  in  the  preponderance  in  the  region  northwest  of 
the  Alps.  For  the  south  of  Italy  the  material  is  too  meagre  to 
enable  us  to  say  more  than  that  the  population  here  also  was 
clearly  mixed.  Detailed  analysis  of  the  Italian  Eneolithic  crania 
is  practically  impossible,  owing  to  their  very  imperfect  preserva- 
tion. Judging  from  the  very  few  complete  crania,  however,  it 
appears  that  two  dolichocephalic  types  are  present,  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Proto-Negroid,  the  latter  at  least  of  very  short 
stature.  The  Proto-Negroid  type  was,  it  may  be  remembered, 
found  in  Palaeolithic  times  in  the  Grimaldi  caves  near  the  French- 
Italian  border,  so  that  its  persistence  in  northern  Italy  is  not 
surprising.  The  brachycephalic  factors  were  also  two,  the  Al- 
pine and  the  Mongoloid. 

Some  light  is  thrown  on  the  conditions  in  Italy  by  the  some- 
what more  abundant  data  of  this  period  from  Sicily4  and  Sar- 
dinia.5 In  the  former  island  the  extensive  excavations  in  the 
vicinity  of  Syracuse  which  have  revealed  so  much  of  interest  to 
the  archaeologist,  have  brought  to  light  a number  of  crania  of 
Eneolithic  date.  These  indicate  that  although  the  population 
of  the  eastern  portion  of  Sicily  was  predominantly  dolichoce- 
phalic, there  was  also  a small  element  of  brachycephalic  type. 
If  the  two  sexes  are  separated,  a rather  striking  difference  be- 
tween them  at  once  appears,  for  whereas  the  males  show  a strong 
predominance  of  dolichocephalic  factors,  the  females  have  no 
actual  dolichocephals  at  all  and  instead  a large  majority  of  brachy- 

1 Zampa,  1890.  2 Puccioni,  1914.  3 Giuffrida-Ruggeri,  1906  b. 

4 Sergi,  1895  b,  1898;  Giuffrida-Ruggeri,  1907.  6 Sergi,  1907  a. 


THE  ITALIAN  AND  SPANISH  PENINSULAS 


141 


cephalic  factors.  Analysis  of  the  measurements  indicate  that 
the  long-headed  elements  among  the  males  are  in  the  first  place 
the  Mediterranean,  followed  by  the  Proto-Australoid.  The 
former  type  is  important  also  in  the  female  series,  but  is  there 
dominated  by  the  Palae-Alpine  and  closely  followed  by  the  Al- 
pine. In  Sardinia  the  situation  was  about  the  same,  although 
the  contrast  between  the  sexes  was  somewhat  less  sharp. 

From  all  these  facts  it  seems  reasonably  safe  to  conclude  that 
at  the  end  of  the  Neolithic  period  the  fundamental  stratum  of 
the  population  in  the  Italian  peninsula  and  the  islands  was  com- 
posed primarily  of  the  Mediterranean  type,  with  some  survival 
of  the  older  Proto- Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types  presum- 
ably present  in  Palaeolithic  times.  Into  this  predominantly  doli- 
chocephalic population  came,  as  into  most  of  Europe  at  this 
time,  an  infiltration  of  brachycephalic  peoples  which  profoundly 
influenced  the  situation  not  only  on  the  mainland  but  in  the 
islands  as  well.  In  part  we  may  assume  this  immigrant  element 
to  have  come  into  Italy  from  the  north,  by  way  perhaps  of  the 
Adige  valley  and  around  the  head  of  the  Adriatic.  Yet  it  is 
probable  that  a goodly  portion  of  the  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine 
settlers  or  conquerors  came  by  another  route.  For  the  islands  at 
least,  and  especially  for  Sicily,  it  is  likely  that  perhaps  the  larger 
part  came  by  sea  from  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  as  is  suggested 
by  the  similarities  between  Sicilian  pottery  and  that  of  Crete 
and  the  iFgean  area  at  this  period.  There  is  much  archaeological 
evidence  which  leads  us  to  believe  that  these  brachycephalic 
immigrants  to  the  islands  (and  perhaps  to  southern  Italy)  were 
merely  a part  of  the  stream  which,  touching  the  southern  shores 
of  Spain,  passed  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  and  on  up  the 
Atlantic  coast  to  Brittany,  the  British  Isles,  and  the  North  Sea 
shores. 

For  the  succeeding  Bronze  Age,  data  are,  because  of  the  wide 
prevalence  of  cremation,  almost  wholly  lacking.  Archaeological 
evidences,  however,  lead  us  to  believe  that  during  this  period  a 
considerable  immigration  took  place  from  the  northward  into 
the  Po  valley,  and  also  from  the  Danube  valley  around  the  head 


142 


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of  the  Adriatic.  The  former  stream  would  have  brought  large 
increments  of  brachy cephalic,  primarily  Alpine,  peoples;  the 
latter  probably  a mixed  group.  The  result,  at  any  rate,  was  that 
by  the  end  of  the  Bronze  period  the  population  of  the  Po  valley 
and  Venezia  was  much  more  strongly  brachy  cephalic  than  be- 
fore. Emigrants  from  here  crossed  the  Apennines  and  settled 
in  Tuscany,  while  others  continued  farther  south  to  the  Tiber, 
where  they  became  in  part  the  ancestors  of  the  Latins. 

The  evidence  afforded  by  the  Iron  Age  graves  is  interesting, 
for,  although  the  data  are  scanty,  the  crania  from  the  famous 
cemeteries  of  Villanova  and  Novilara1  (on  the  northern  Adriatic 
coast)  indicate  the  appearance  in  considerable  numbers  of  a type 
hitherto  almost  unknown  in  the  Italian  peninsula.  This  is  the 
Caspian,  which  long  before  this  had  become  a factor  of  large 
importance  in  most  of  the  rest  of  Europe,  but  which  now  for  the 
first  time,  apparently,  penetrated  south  of  the  Alps.  The  strength 
of  its  representation  along  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic  leads  to  the 
suggestion  that  these  immigrants  may  have  come,  like  the  earlier 
brachycephals,  by  sea.  The  supposition  is  far  from  impossible, 
but  the  presence  of  strong  elements  of  this  type  in  the  Danube 
valley  at  this  period,  renders  an  alternative  route  by  land  across 
the  northern  portion  of  the  Balkan  region  worth  consideration. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  historic  period  we  are  on  firmer 
ground,  and  the  first  of  the  problems  that  calls  for  discussion  is 
the  much  debated  one  of  the  racial  character  and  affiliations  of 
the  Etruscans,  whose  civilization  in  the  valley  of  the  Po  and  in 
Tuscany  antedated  that  of  Rome.  Analysis  of  the  series  of  about 
a hundred  crania  which  are  available,2  shows  at  once  that  they 
form  a very  much  mixed  group.  On  the  whole  the  dolichoce- 
phalic factors  prevail,  but  there  is  a difference  between  the  sexes 
such  that  the  males  have  a clear  excess  of  long-headed  elements, 
the  females  an  excess  of  round-headed  types.  In  both  sexes  the 
Mediterranean  type  is  the  most  important  single  factor,  followed 
by  the  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  types.  These  three  types  had, 

1 Sergi,  1907  b. 

2 Cantacuzene,  1909;  Frasetto,  1906;  Mosso,  1905-06;  Sergi,  1915. 


THE  ITALIAN  AND  SPANISH  PENINSULAS 


143 


however,  been  present  in  northern  Italy  at  least  ever  since  Eneo- 
lithic  times,  and  we  seem  to  get  no  definite  indication  of  any  clear- 
cut  differences  between  the  Etruscan  and  the  older  population. 
If  Mosso  is  correct,  however,  in  his  dating  of  the  crania,  it  would 
seem  to  be  undeniable  that  the  early  Etruscans  were  very  notably 
more  dolichocephalic  than  the  later,  and  belonged,  moreover, 
primarily  to  the  Caspian  and  Proto-Negroid  types  rather  than 
to  the  Mediterranean,  which  was  dominant  in  Italy  in  earlier 
times.  The  early  Etruscans  therefore  were  to  a considerable  ex- 
tent “un-Italian,”  and  their  traditional  foreign  origin  is  thus  cor- 
roborated, although  but  little  light  is  thrown  on  the  vexed  ques- 
tion of  their  provenience.  Since  they  seem  however  to  have  been 
in  large  part  dolichocephalic,  any  close  relationship  such  as  has 
been  suggested  to  the  highly  brachycephalic  population  of  Asia 
Minor  seems  impossible. 

If  the  Etruscans  were  a mixed  people,  what  can  be  said  of 
their  neighbors  to  the  south  in  Latium,  that  Latin  people  who 
were  destined  to  conquer  the  Etruscans  and  build  up  the  great 
power  of  Rome?  The  series1  of  Roman  crania  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury B.  C.  is  the  earliest  data  we  possess,  and  shows  that  the 
Romans  of  the  period  prior  to  the  establishment  of  the  Republic 
were  almost  as  mixed  a people  as  the  Etruscans.  As  in  their 
case,  the  males  are  much  more  strongly  dolichocephalic  than  the 
females,  and  while  for  both  sexes  the  proportion  of  Mediterranean 
factors  is  about  the  same,  the  males  have  in  addition  a consider- 
able representation  of  both  Proto-Australoid  and  Caspian  types, 
which  are  practically  lacking  in  the  females.  These  latter,  on 
the  other  hand,  show  a large  Pate-Alpine  factor  which  is  virtu- 
ally absent  in  the  males.  The  interpretation  of  these  facts  is 
not  altogether  easy.  The  striking  dolichocephaly  of  the  men  in 
comparison  with  the  women  suggests,  in  view  of  the  large  Cas- 
pian element  present,  that  possibly  an  infusion  of  the  Iron  Age 
Novilara  peoples  from  the  Adriatic  coast  may  have  crossed  the 
Apennines  into  Umbria  and  Latium,  thus  greatly  strengthening 
the  dolichocephalic  factors  in  the  valley  of  the  Tiber.  Some 

1 Sergi,  1900. 


144 


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contributory  evidence  in  favor  of  this  view  will  be  pointed  out 
later. 

If  this  hypothesis  is  correct,  it  will  be  seen  at  once  that  its 
implications  are  important.  These  may  be  outlined  briefly  as 
follows:  By  the  end  of  the  Bronze  period  the  population  of  the 
northern  half  of  Italy  at  least  had  become  very  much  mixed. 
The  old  Neolithic  dolichocephalic  peoples,  mainly  of  Mediter- 
ranean and  Proto-Australoid  types,  had  been  overlaid  by  and 
largely  blended  with  Palas-Alpine  and  Alpine  peoples  who  had 
come  into  the  Po  valley  from  the  north  and  also  (bringing  with 
them  the  Terramare  culture)  around  the  head  of  the  Adriatic 
from  the  Balkan  region.  These  brachycephalic  immigrants  by 
land  had  also  been  supplemented,  perhaps,  by  others  who  came 
by  sea.  The  Iron  Age  is  marked  by  an  apparent  recrudescence 
of  dolichocephalic  types.  These  appear  first  along  the  Adriatic 
coast  at  Novilara  near  Pesaro,  at  Villanova  near  Bologna,  at 
Macerata,  and  perhaps  farther  south.  Where,  as  at  Novilara, 
the  crania  are  sufficiently  well  preserved  to  enable  us  to  deter- 
mine their  type,  the  striking  feature  is  the  great  predominance 
of  a type  largely  new  to  Italy,  i.  e.,  the  Caspian.  The  following 
centuries  saw  the  spread  of  these  immigrants  across  the  Apennines 
into  Etruria  and  Umbria,  and  as  far  south  at  least  as  northern 
Campagna.  By  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  they  had  become  the 
kernel  of  the  people  known  as  the  Etruscans,  and  as  the  Sabines 
they  entered  into  the  fusion  which  resulted  in  the  founding  of 
Rome,  where,  as  the  Patrician  class,  they  formed  the  aristocracy 
of  the  Roman  people.  There  was  thus  a racial  factor  in  common 
between  the  early  Romans  and  the  Etruscans,  which  helps  to 
explain  some  features  of  the  obscure  early  history  of  Rome.  The 
Umbrian  crania  of  the  third  and  second  centuries  B.  C.  seem  to 
add  something  by  way  of  corroboration  to  this  theory,  since 
here  several  centuries  later,  the  Caspian  factor  still  remains  one 
of  importance  in  the  population. 

The  Roman  population  of  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  was,  as  we 
have  seen,  predominantly  dolichocephalic,  so  far  at  least  as  the 
males  were  concerned.  When  we  are  able  to  study  them  again, 


THE  ITALIAN  AND  SPANISH  PENINSULAS 


145 


in  the  series  of  crania  dating  from  the  period  between  the  second 
century  B.  C.  to  the  second  century  A.  D.,1  we  find  them  to  have 
undergone  a complete  change.  The  male  crania  now  show  a 
large  majority  of  brachycephalic  factors,  mainly  of  the  Alpine 
type,  the  dolichocephalic  elements  surviving  being  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Proto-Australoid.  The  females,  however,  retain 
a notable  Caspian  factor,  which  four  or  five  centuries  before  had 
been  so  characteristic  of  the  males.  The  completeness  of  the 
transformation  is  shown  still  more  clearly  by  the  Pompeian 
crania,2  dating  from  the  first  century  A.  D.  Here  the  dolicho- 
cephalic factors  have  almost  totally  disappeared,  and  the  Alpine 
type  dominates  both  sexes  in  large  degree. 

The  Roman  of  the  Empire  was  thus  something  quite  different 
from  the  Roman  of  the  earlier  period.  To  what  was  this  change 
due?  The  final  answer  to  this  question  must  await  the  securing 
of  data  for  the  intervening  period  in  northern  Italy,  yet  the  major 
outlines  of  the  process  by  which  the  revolution  was  brought 
about  seem  fairly  clear.  In  a word,  the  change  must  have  been 
due  to  absorption.  The  five  or  six  hundred  years  between  the 
time  of  Servius  Tullius  and  the  second  century  of  the  Empire 
had  been  a time  of  enormous  expansion.  Rome  had  grown  to 
be  a great  city,  and  the  increase  in  population  had  been  primarily 
in  the  non-patrician  class.  We  have  already  seen  that  by  the 
end  of  the  Bronze  period  the  people  of  northern  Italy  at  least 
had,  as  the  result  of  the  immigration  of  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine 
peoples,  lost  its  earlier  majority  of  dolichocephalic  types.  The 
Caspian  invaders  of  the  Iron  Age  were,  after  all,  but  a minority, 
and  had  been  absorbed  into  the  mass  of  the  previous  population, 
while  the  ranks  of  the  brachycephals  were  constantly  augmented 
by  new  intrusions  and  infiltrations  from  the  north  and  northeast. 
During  the  fifth  century  the  Gallic  invasion  had  poured  across 
the  Alps  into  the  Po  valley,  and  not  until  the  third  century  did 
Cis-Alpine  Gaul  come  under  Roman  rule.  Meanwhile  the  whole 
region  had  probably  become  in  large  majority  brachycephalic. 
Upon  all  of  this  northern  area,  as  well  as  upon  the  south,  Rome 

1Sergi,  1900.  2 Schmidt,  E.,  1884. 


146 


EUROPE 


drew  for  its  increasing  population,  with  tne  result  that  the  rising 
tide  of  round-headed  peoples  drowned  out  the  older  long-heads. 
That  the  transformation  was  progressive  from  north  to  south  is 
suggested  by  the  fact  that  the  later  Etruscans  were  already  pre- 
dominantly brachycephalic. 

For  the  long  period  between  the  second  century  and  the 
eighteenth  there  are  virtually  no  data  from  which  to  obtain  con- 
crete evidence  in  regard  to  the  changes  which  may  have  taken 
place  in  the  Italian  population.  We  can  only  infer  from  histori- 
cal sources  what  was  happening  during  this  period  of  1,500  years. 
It  seems  certain  that  large  increments  of  new  blood  came  into 
Italy,  particularly  in  the  north,  during  the  first  part  of  this  time. 
The  sources  were  twofold,  (1)  the  appearance  in  Italy  of  legions 
made  up  of  foreign  soldiers  recruited  in  Spain,  in  Gaul,  Illyria, 
and  the  Danubian  region,  and  (2)  the  barbarian  invasions  of  the 
fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  The  legionaries  from  outside  Italy 
brought  varied  racial  factors  to  the  developing  complex  of  the 
Italic  people.  Some,  such  as  the  Gauls,  brought  largely  brachy- 
cephalic factors  of  Alpine  and  Palse- Alpine  type;  others,  such  as 
the  Iberians,  reinforced  the  dolichocephalic  elements.  But  while 
the  influence  from  the  side  of  the  legions  was  probably  by  no 
means  negligible,  that  of  the  invasions  of  the  Goths  in  the  fifth 
and  of  the  Lombards  in  the  sixth  centuries  was  of  far  greater 
magnitude.  Both  of  these  immigrants,  although  almost  cer- 
tainly much  mixed,  contributed  in  the  main  to  the  dolichoce- 
phalic elements  in  the  population,  bringing  more  specifically  that 
blend  of  the  Caspian,  Mediterranean,  and  Proto-Negroid  types 
which  is  commonly  known  as  “Nordic,”  with  its  strong  ten- 
dency toward  blondness  and  tall  stature.  It  would  therefore 
seem  probable  that  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  century  the  valley 
of  the  Po  must  have  had  a considerable  dolichocephalic  element, 
and  that  this  probably  extended  southward  in  diminishing 
strength,  at  least  as  far  as  Rome.  That  this  is  true  seems  to  be 
shown  by  a small  series  of  crania  from  Aquilaea  in  Venezia,1  dat- 
ing from  the  period  between  the  eighth  and  twelfth  centuries. 

1 Vram,  1899. 


THE  ITALIAN  AND  SPANISH  PENINSULAS 


147 


The  series  indicates  that  even  at  this  still  later  time  dolicho- 
cephalic factors  amounted  to  nearly  40  per  cent.  The  influence 
of  this  great  dolichocephalic  invasion  seems,  however,  to  have 
faded  rapidly  after  this,  for  in  a similar  series  dating  from  the 
fourteenth  century  the  long-headed  factors  have  decreased  to 
about  15  per  cent,  which  proportion  they  have  preserved  rela- 
tively unchanged  down  to  the  present  day. 

For  the  modern  population  of  Italy  we  possess  cranial  data 
from  Venezia,1  Umbria,2  and  Tuscany.3  Analysis  of  the  material 
shows  that  the  population  in  all  three  areas  is  very  similar;  in 
each  the  brachycephalic  factors  are  in  great  majority,  ranging 
from  75  to  85  per  cent,  and  in  each  the  Alpine  type  is  clearly 
dominant.  Certain  interesting  differences  may,  however,  be  de- 
tected between  the  region  north  and  that  south  of  the  Apen- 
nines. In  the  former,  and  especially  in  Bologna,  the  factor  of 
secondary  importance  is  the  Ural  type,  whereas  in  the  region 
south  of  the  Apennines  it  is  the  Palae-Alpine.  The  latter  was 
characteristic  of  the  immigrants  into  Italy  in  the  Bronze  Age; 
the  Ural  type,  on  the  other  hand,  was  little  if  at  all  known  in 
Italy  until  mediaeval  times,  when  it  was  an  important  factor  in 
the  Swiss  population. 

For  southern  Italy,  from  the  earliest  period  down  to  modern 
times,  practically  no  cranial  material  is  available;  even  from  the 
region  about  Rome  we  have  nothing  of  any  real  value  since  the 
second  century.  About  all  that  the  few  scattered  individual 
crania  from  the  whole  south  enable  us  to  say  of  its  racial  his- 
tory is  that  its  population  has  at  all  times  apparently  been 
somewhat  mixed;  nevertheless  the  dolichocephalic  factors  have 
been  more  clearly  and  continuously  dominant  here  than  in  the 
north.  The  only  exception  to  the  general  absence  of  data  from 
the  south  is  the  small  series  of  modern  crania  from  Manfredonia4 
in  Apulia.  The  contrast  with  the  region,  say,  of  Umbria  in  the 
north  is  striking.  Here  dolichocephalic  factors  are  in  the  ma- 
jority, although  brachycephalic  elements  amount  to  almost  a 


1 Tedeschi,  1897. 

3 Moschen,  1898;  Zanolli,  1908. 


2 Moschen,  1896. 
4 Frassetto,  1904. 


148 


EUROPE 


third  of  the  total.  The  Mediterranean  type  is  of  much  the 
greatest  importance,  and  is  followed  by  the  Proto-Negroid,  both 
perhaps  survivals  of  the  Neolithic  fundamental  stratum  which 
in  the  whole  north  has  been  replaced  by  Palse-Alpine  and  Alpine 
types,  that  in  the  south  have  penetrated  only  as  minorities. 

Before  turning  to  the  living  population,  a few  words  must  be 
said  in  regard  to  the  changes  which  have  occurred  in  Sicily  and 
Sardinia  since  Eneolithic  times.  For  Sicily  we  have  series  of 
modern  crania  from  Messina1  and  also  from  Palermo,2  and  analy- 
sis shows  that  the  two  series  are  substantially  similar  in  char- 
acter, and  that  so  far  as  relative  proportions  of  dolichocephalic 
and  brachycephalic  factors  are  concerned,  the  modern  popula- 
tion is  almost  identical  with  that  of  Eneolithic  times.  Yet  the 
types  involved  have  changed.  The  round-headed  elements  are 
the  same  in  character  and  proportions,  but  the  long-headed  fac- 
tors have  been  strongly  modified.  For  whereas  in  prehistoric 
times  the  Mediterranean  type  was  in  very  large  majority,  to-day 
while  still  the  largest  single  factor,  it  has  associated  with  it  a 
considerable  proportion  of  both  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Caspian 
types.  From  the  Eneolithic  period  down  well  into  modern 
times,  Sicily  has  received  large  increments  of  population  from 
without — Carthaginian  and  Greek,  Goth  and  Vandal,  Saracen, 
Norman,  and  Lombard.  With  this  welter  of  immigrants  it  is  ex- 
traordinary that  the  general  character  of  the  population  has  re- 
mained, after  all,  so  stable.  To  which  of  these  immigrant  groups 
the  new  dolichocephalic  elements  are  to  be  ascribed,  is  difficult 
to  say  with  any  certainty.  The  Caspian  factor  may  be  due  to 
almost  any,  except  probably  the  Carthaginian,  to  which  we  may 
perhaps  look  for  part,  at  least,  of  the  Proto-Negroid  element. 
That  this  is  somewhat  more  common  in  Palermo  than  in  Mes- 
sina would  seem  to  be  in  accordance  with  this  suggestion. 

Sardinia3  presents  a rather  different  picture.  Comparison  of 
the  modern  crania  with  those  of  prehistoric  times  shows  that  the 
present  population  contains  a much  smaller  proportion  of  brachy- 


1 Mondio,  1897. 

3 Duckworth,  1910-11;  Onnis,  1898. 


2 Moschen,  1893. 


THE  ITALIAN  AND  SPANISH  PENINSULAS 


149 


cephalic  elements  than  the  ancient.  As  in  Sicily,  however,  the 
dolichocephalic  types  have  changed.  Whereas  formerly  the 
Proto-Negroid  type  was  in  large  majority,  it  is  the  Proto- Austra- 
loid and  Mediterranean  types  which  are  most  prominent  to-day. 
As  compared  with  Sicily,  Sardinia  suffered  less  in  the  way  of  con- 
quest and  invasion  by  outsiders,  and  the  changes  observed  can- 
not well  be  explained  in  the  same  way  as  there.  Perhaps  the  de- 
crease in  the  Proto-Negroid  type  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
extensive  depletion  of  the  wilder  tribes,  which  were  captured  and 
sent  in  thousands  as  slaves  to  Rome;  no  suggestion  offers  itself, 
however,  in  regard  to  the  increase  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
Proto-Australoid  types,  unless  some  increase  in  the  former  may 
be  attributed  to  the  Jewish  and  Egyptian  settlers  sent  to  the 
island  by  Tiberius. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  living  population  of  Italy  we  owe 
mainly  to  the  great  series  of  measurements  taken  by  Livi1  on 
military  conscripts  from  all  portions  of  the  country.  From  his 
data  the  following  conclusions  may  be  drawn : In  head-form  the 
present  population  exhibits  a very  significant  distribution  of  the 
dolichocephalic  and  brachycephalic  factors.  The  map  given  in 
Plate  V,  Fig.  i,  shows  the  percentage  of  dolichocephalic  types  for 
the  whole  of  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia  by  provinces.  It  will  be 
noted  that  these  reach  a proportion  of  as  much  as  25  or  35  per 
cent  only  in  the  “toe”  and  “heel”  of  the  peninsula.  In  all  of 
Italy  north  of  the  Apennines  the  proportion  of  dolichocephals  is 
only  5 per  cent  or  less;  whereas  in  all  the  area  to  the  south  (ex- 
cept in  the  “toe”  and  “heel”)  the  proportion  ranges  in  general 
between  5 per  cent  and  15  per  cent,  except  in  Umbria  and  part 
of  Tuscany,  where  it  falls  to  a figure  more  characteristic  of  the 
north,  and  in  the  Serchio  and  Magra  valleys  near  Lucca,  where 
there  is  a small  area  of  greater  prevalence  of  dolichocephaly.  Of 
the  islands,  Sicily  shows  in  general  less  than  25  per  cent  of  dolicho- 
cephals, rising  above  this  only  in  the  northeast  corner,  where  the 
island  approaches  closest  to  the  mainland.  An  example  of  the 
dolichocephalic  type  of  mixed  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  origin 

1For  titles,  see  Ripley,  1899,  Bibliography. 


150 


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is  given  on  Plate  IV,  Fig.  2.  Sardinia,  on  the  other  hand, 
shows  in  its  southern  half  probably  the  largest  proportion  of 
long-headed  individuals  in  all  southern  Europe  outside  parts  of 
the  Iberian  peninsula. 

In  Plate  V,  Fig.  2,  is  given  the  complement  to  the  former 
map,  in  this  case  showing  the  percentage  of  brachycephalic 
individuals  in  each  district.  Although  somewhat  less  uniform 
than  the  other  map,  its  significance  is  even  more  clear.  Here 
again  the  Po  valley  stands  out  sharply,  with  its  80  per  cent  or 
more  of  brachycephalic  individuals,  and  the  striking  character 
of  the  northern  Apennines  as  a racial  frontier  is  again  shown. 
The  extent,  however,  to  which  the  brachycephalic  factors  have 
penetrated  southward  in  the  peninsula  is  especially  strikingly 
shown,  in  that  it  appears  that  they  form  50  per  cent  or  more 
of  the  population  as  far  south  as  the  Campagna  and  the  northern 
part  of  Abruzzi,  and  only  in  the  district  of  Cosenza  in  Calabria 
do  they  fall  below  20  per  cent.  Sicily  is,  in  general,  similar  to 
the  adjacent  tip  of  Calabria,  while  Sardinia,  as  might  be  expected, 
shows  throughout  the  minimum  proportions. 

In  stature  we  may  distinguish  three  main  regions.  The  first 
includes  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  together  with  all  of  the  peninsula 
south  of  a line  running  from  Rome  to  Ancona.  Here  the  stature 
is  short,  the  average  ranging  from  159-162  cm.  The  second 
comprises  all  the  rest  of  Italy,  except  the  province  of  Venezia, 
and  is  marked  by  a somewhat  taller  stature,  although  still  under 
the  medium  (av.  163-165).  The  third  is  formed  by  Venezia, 
where  the  stature  increases  again  slightly,  averaging  166  cm., 
this  rise  being  in  the  region  which  adjoins  the  area  of  tall  statures 
in  the  Tyrol  and  the  northern  Balkan  lands. 

While  all  of  Italy  may  with  justice  be  said  to  be  primarily 
brunet  in  coloring,  there  are,  however,  distinct  grades  of  bru- 
netness  observable.  The  extremes  are  found,  on  the  one  hand, 
in  Sardinia  and  Calabria,  where  blond  or  even  mixed  types  are 
practically  absent,  and,  on  the  other,  along  the  northern  margin 
of  the  Po  valley,  where  considerable  blond  factors  appear. 

The  character  and  distribution  of  the  living  population  seem 


PLATE  V.  ITALY. 

Figure  i.  Percentage  of  Dolichocephals  (based  on  data  given  by  Livi).  Figure  2.  Percentage  of  Brachycepbals  (based  on  data  given  by  Livi). 


THE  ITALIAN  AND  SPANISH  PENINSULAS 


151 


thus  to  bear  out  very  well  the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  study 
of  the  older  materials.  Of  the  original  early  Neolithic  popula- 
tion, short  in  stature,  probably  brunet  in  color,  and  mainly 
made  up  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Proto-Australoid  types,  with 
some  admixture  of  the  taller  Proto-Negroid,  there  remains  out- 
side Sardinia  but  a dwindling  minority.  Only  in  Calabria  and 
the  tip  of  Apulia  do  any  of  these  survive  in  considerable  propor- 
tion, and  here  probably  it  is  the  Mediterranean  type  which  forms 
the  bulk  of  the  present  dolichocephalic  population.  Through- 
out most  of  the  rest  of  the  peninsula  the  brachycephalic  types 
which  since  late  Neolithic  times  have  poured  into  Italy  across 
the  Alps  or  around  the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  now  dominate,  as 
they  seem  to  have  done  as  early  as  the  first  century  of  our  era. 
Now  as  then,  the  most  important  factor  in  this  brachycephalic 
population  is  the  short,  brunet  Alpine  type,  although  in  the  Po 
valley  to-day  there  is  a not  inconsiderable  factor  of  the  Ural 
type,  which  seems  to  show  a tendency  toward  blond  coloration. 
Of  the  influence  of  the  immigrant  Goths  and  Lombards,  Baltic 
peoples  of  tall  stature  and  predominantly  dolichocephalic  type, 
there  is  little  trace,  except  so  far  as  it  may  be  seen  in  a tendency 
toward  taller  stature  and  a greater  proportion  of  blonds,  in  those 
portions  of  the  Po  valley  in  which  they  settled  most  abundantly. 

II.  The  Iberian  Peninsula 

Like  Italy,  the  peninsula  now  politically  divided  between 
Spain  and  Portugal  is  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  Europe  by  a moun- 
tain wall,  and  in  comparison  with  the  Alps  the  Pyrenees  have 
been,  on  the  whole,  a more  effective  barrier.  The  relative  isola- 
tion thus  afforded  and  the  close  approach  of  the  peninsula  to  the 
African  coast  (with  which  in  Palaeolithic  times  it  was  still  actu- 
ally connected)  have  been  the  chief  geographic  features  whose 
influence  may  be  traced  in  its  racial  history.  The  surface  fea- 
tures of  the  peninsula  have  also  been  of  some  importance  in  this 
respect,  several  fairly  distinct  areas  being  discernible.  The 
larger  portion  of  the  area  is  occupied  by  the  central  plateau, 


152 


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which  lies  at  an  elevation  of  between  two  and  three  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea.  Bordering  this  on  the  north  are  the  Can- 
tabrian Mountains  and  on  the  south  the  Sierra  Nevada,  although 
these  are  in  large  part  separated  from  the  plateau  proper  by  the 
lowland  of  the  Guadalquivir  basin,  as  the  Pyrenees  in  the  north 
are  by  the  even  broader  basin  of  the  Ebro. 

The  modern  population  of  the  Iberian  peninsula  is  divided 
into  three  main  groups  by  differences  in  language.  The  western 
portion,  including  Portugal  and  the  Spanish  province  of  Galicia, 
speaks  Portuguese;  the  people  of  the  opposite  eastern  coast  in 
Valencia  and  Catalonia  have  for  their  language  Catalan,  which 
is  related  to  the  Provencal  or  Langue  d’Oc  of  southern  France; 
Spanish  is  the  tongue  of  all  the  remainder  of  the  population,  with 
the  exception  of  a small  area  at  the  western  end  of  the  Pyrenees, 
where  both  in  Spain  and  France  we  find  the  Basques.  In  their 
speech  this  interesting  people  are  an  anomaly,  for  it  is  a poly- 
synthetic-agglutinative one,  wholly  unrelated  to  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean or  any  other  existing  form  of  speech,  although  grammati- 
cally it  has  analogies  with  the  Ural-Altaic  and  some  of  the 
American  Indian  languages. 

In  comparison  with  France,  the  Iberian  peninsula  is  as  yet 
very  poor  in  any  cranial  remains  dating  to  the  Palaeolithic  period. 
Only  a single  skull,  the  now  famous  but  long  neglected  Gibraltar 
skull,  has  yet  been  found  within  the  area.  In  type  this  skull, 
which  dates  from  early  Palaeolithic  times,  appears  to  be  a blend 
between  the  Proto-Australoid  and  Mongoloid  types.  The  for- 
mer was  that  dominant  in  France  at  this  period;  the  latter,  al- 
though it  appears  later  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  is  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  continent  extremely  rare.  It  was  present,  how- 
ever, in  historic  and  prehistoric  times  on  the  Mediterranean 
shores  of  Africa,  and  was  an  important  element  in  the  population 
of  some  of  the  Canary  Islands,  so  that  we  may  perhaps  regard 
its  apparent  presence  at  the  tip  of  the  peninsula  as  evidence  of 
African  influence.  A single  skull  of  mixed  type  found  at  the 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  is  slender  evidence  on  which  to  base 
conclusions  in  regard  to  the  Palaeolithic  population,  but  if  we 


THE  ITALIAN  AND  SPANISH  PENINSULAS 


153 


take  into  consideration  the  conditions  in  France  we  may  hazard 
the  statement  that  the  Proto-Australoid  type  was  also  in  Spain 
the  dominant  factor. 

For  Neolithic  times  the  data  are  somewhat  more  numerous, 
but  unfortunately  the  crania  are  so  incomplete,  or,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  important  series  from  the  shell-heaps  of  Mugem  in  Portu- 
gal, the  published  measurements  are  so  incomplete,  that  the  de- 
termination of  the  types  present  is  somewhat  precarious.  It  is 
clear,  at  any  rate,  that  dolichocephalic  factors  were  everywhere 
in  the  majority,  and  generally  in  large  majority.  As  in  France, 
the  Mediterranean  type  seems  to  have  been  the  most  important, 
although  there  is  evidence  of  the  considerable  strength  of  the 
Proto-Negroid  factor,  which,  as  will  be  seen,  still  survives  in 
remote  districts  among  the  living  population.  The  brachy- 
cephalic  elements  cannot  be  determined,  but  seem  to  have  been 
relatively  much  less  abundant  than  in  France,  and  the  peninsula 
appears  to  have  retained  its  predominantly  dolichocephalic  char- 
acter until  the  end  of  Neolithic  times. 

The  excavations  of  Siret1  on  the  coast  of  Granada  have  brought 
to  light  crania  dating  from  the  Eneolithic  or  early  Bronze  Age, 
which  reveal  the  population  of  this  southeastern  corner  of  the 
peninsula  as  very  mixed.  Although  dolichocephalic  factors  are 
in  the  majority,  the  predominance  of  the  Mediterranean  type 
has  disappeared  and  is  replaced  by  the  Caspian,  the  hypotheti- 
cally Palaeolithic  Proto-Australoid  occupying  second  place.  Of 
the  brachy cephalic  elements,  the  Ural  and  Palae- Alpine  types  are 
almost  the  only  ones  represented.  The  conclusions  to  be  drawn 
from  these  finds,  although  tentative  in  the  absence  of  other  com- 
parable material,  seem  important.  The  weakness  of  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  strength  of  the  Caspian  type  would  appear  to 
imply  a rather  radical  change,  which  may  be  accounted  for  in 
several  ways.  Since  the  latter  type  was  not,  so  far  as  we  can 
tell,  present  in  the  peninsula  in  any  force  in  Neolithic  times,  it 
must  have  come  in  either  from  France  in  the  north  or  from  Africa 
in  the  south,  unless,  as  seems  rather  unlikely,  it  came  by  sea. 

, 1 Siret,  1887. 


154 


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Whether  peoples  of  Caspian  type  had  penetrated  to  southern 
and  southwestern  France  at  this  time  we  do  not  know,  since 
Neolithic  crania  from  this  portion  of  the  country  are  as  yet 
practically  unknown;  and  if  they  had,  to  have  reached  the  ex- 
treme southern  coast  in  such  considerable  strength  would  almost 
have  necessitated  a complete  modification  of  the  population  of 
the  whole  of  the  rest  of  the  peninsula,  of  which  we  have  no  evi- 
dence. There  is,  however,  much  greater  probability  in  the  sug- 
gestion of  an  African  source.  As  will  be  shown  in  a later  chapter 
devoted  to  northern  Africa,  the  Caspian  type  was  almost  certainly 
strongly  represented  in  the  region  north  of  the  Sahara  at  this 
time,  and  its  presence  on  the  coast  of  Granada  would  thus  be  the 
result  of  a spread  from  Morocco  along  the  peninsula’s  southern 
shore.  It  is  a theory  strongly  championed  that  the  Medi- 
terranean type  spread  into  Spain  from  Africa;  a much  later 
historical  movement  in  the  same  direction  was  that  of  the  Arabs 
and  Saracens,  so  that  there  would  seem  to  be  justification  for 
some  such  Proto-Berber  drift. 

The  presence  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  metal  ages  of  a 
considerable  factor  of  the  Ural  type,  here  on  the  extreme  south- 
eastern coast  of  Spain,  is  puzzling.  We  cannot  look  to  Africa, 
for  there  is  no  trace  of  it  there;  there  seems  little  justification  in 
regarding  it  as  sea-borne  from  the  eastern  portions  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, for  neither  in  Sicily  nor  Sardinia,  where,  if  this  were 
the  case  we  might  also  expect  to  find  traces  of  it,  is  there  any 
evidence  of  its  presence.  We  are  left  with  an  origin  from  the 
north,  from  France,  and  for  this  we  have  some  little  evidence, 
since  it  has  been  shown  that  in  Belgium  at  least  the  type  was 
abundant  in  Neolithic  times,  and  our  scanty  data  show  that  it 
was  present  also  in  the  Paris  basin.  As  before,  the  absence  of 
all  data  for  southwestern  France  makes  the  demonstration  of 
any  connection  with  Spain  impossible.  We  have,  however,  the 
point  that  will  be  elaborated  somewhat  later  in  discussing  the 
problem  of  the  Basque,  namely,  that  among  this  ancient  and 
isolated  people  of  the  western  Pyrenees,  this  same  Ural  type  is 
still  to-day  of  large  importance.  Until  further  evidence  dis- 


THE  ITALIAN  AND  SPANISH  PENINSULAS 


155 


proves  the  theory,  I would  suggest  that  these  brachycephals 
represent  the  earliest  immigration  into  the  peninsula  from  the 
northward  of  which  we  have  any  trace. 

For  the  Bronze  and  Early  Iron  Ages  there  are  little  or  no  avail- 
able data,  but  we  may  probably  assume  that,  in  common  with 
France  and  other  parts  of  western  Europe  at  the  former  period, 
a considerable  infusion  of  brachycephalic  factors  took  place. 
That  some,  at  least,  of  the  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  immigrants 
came  lured  by  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  peninsula,  and  came  by 
sea  from  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  seems  extremely  probable. 
Galicia  and  Asturia  in  the  northwest  and  Sevilla  in  the  south- 
west were  in  particular  regions  so  influenced  from  the  sea,  and 
the  remains  of  these  early  brachycephalic  miners  have  been 
found,  for  example,  at  the  copper-mines  of  Huelva.  Somewhat 
later  more  numerous  floods  of  Alpine  peoples  poured  in  from 
France  around  the  western  end  of  the  Pyrenees  and  across  the 
Cantabrian  Mountains  into  Old  Castile  and  Leon.  Such,  for  ex- 
ample, was  the  Celtic  immigration  of  the  fourth  century  B.  C. 

How  far  the  Roman  occupation  of  the  peninsula  affected  the 
racial  history  is  here,  as  elsewhere,  a matter  of  uncertainty.  It 
is  undoubtedly  true  that  there  was  a very  considerable  infusion 
of  Roman  blood  in  parts  of  the  country,  which  would  have  con- 
tributed both  brachycephalic  and  dolichocephalic  elements  simi- 
lar in  the  main  to  those  already  present.  The  importance  of  any 
such  influence  is,  however,  far  overshadowed  by  the  period  of 
invasion,  which,  beginning  in  the  fifth  century  A.  D.,  brought 
into  the  peninsula,  as  also  to  France,  a flood  of  peoples  from  the 
Baltic  Lands,  whose  racial  characteristics  were  largely  those  of 
the  “Nordic”  blend.  Vandals,  Suevi,  Alans,  and  Goths  con- 
tributed beyond  doubt,  a considerable  factor  to  the  racial  com- 
plex, especially  in  the  north  and  northwest  of  the  peninsula. 
The  south,  on  the  other  hand,  would  seem  to  have  been  rela- 
tively little  affected;  its  turn  came  with  the  Mohammedan  con- 
quests of  the  eighth  century  and  the  several  centuries  of  Saracen 
rule.  During  this  period  we  have  the  coming  of  Arabs,  Berbers, 
and  other  north  African  peoples  in  considerable  numbers,  with 


156 


EUROPE 


the  result  that  further  increments  of  long-headed  types  were 
added  to  the  population.  These  were  probably  in  the  main 
Mediterranean  and  Caspian,  with  something  of  the  Proto-Negroid 
type. 

The  results  of  the  study  of  the  living  population  have,  as  in 
so  many  cases,  been  published  only  in  such  form  as  to  make 
analysis  of  the  data  impossible,  and  only  general  statements  in 
regard  to  head-form  can  be  made.  Basing  conclusions  on  the 
average  cephalic  index  of  the  different  provinces  and  districts, 
the  Iberian  peninsula  has  a somewhat  more  uniform  population 
than  France,  and  one  which  is  much  more  strongly  dolicho- 
cephalic. Whereas  in  France  no  department  shows  at  present 
an  average  cephalic  index  which  falls  within  the  dolichocephalic 
group,  in  the  peninsula,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  map  given  in 
Plate  VI,  the  whole  basin  of  the  Douro  in  the  north  and  west, 
together  with  a smaller  area  in  Murcia  in  the  southeast,  are  more 
or  less  strongly  dolichocephalic,  while  the  Ebro  and  Guadal- 
quivir basins  are  only  just  over  the  line  in  the  mesocephalic  group. 
In  France  the  average  cephalic  index  of  most  of  the  departments 
is  clearly  brachycephalic;  in  the  peninsula  brachycephalic  aver- 
ages occur  only  in  two  areas,  one  being  in  the  vicinity  of  Huelva 
on  the  Gulf  of  Cadiz,  where  strong  infusions  of  round-headed 
folk  took  place  in  the  Bronze  Age;  the  other  being  in  the  Canta- 
brian region,  along  the  northern  coast  from  Corunna  eastward 
to  Bilbao.  From  Hoyos  Sainz’s1  study  of  modern  Spanish  crania 
it  would  appear  that  the  dolichocephalic  element  in  the  upper 
Douro  basin,  in  Leon,  and  Old  Castile,  was  primarily  Medi- 
terranean in  type.  In  northern  Portugal,2  however,  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Beira  Alta  and  Tras  os  Montes,  there  is  a strong  factor 
of  the  Caspian  type,  which  yields  in  the  more  rugged  and  moun- 
tainous sections  to  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto-Australoid 
types.  Both  of  these  seem  also  to  be  of  notable  importance  in 
the  mountainous  parts  along  the  Levantine  coast,  where,  in  the 
province  of  Teruel  for  example,  they  are  especially  clearly  marked 
among  the  female  portion  of  the  population.  The  brachyce- 

1 Hoyos  Sainz,  1913.  2 Mendes  Correa,  1916-17. 


. 


THE  ITALIAN  AND  SPANISH  PENINSULAS 


157 


phalic  factors  throughout  seem  to  be  in  the  main  of  Alpine  type. 

The  stature  of  the  present-day  population  varies  about  as 
widely  as  that  in  France,  and  the  geographic  distribution  of  the 
taller  and  shorter  types  is  rather  significant,  in  that  the  latter 
are  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  plateau  and  the  mountain 
areas  of  the  north  and  northwest,  whereas  the  taller  types  cluster 
along  the  eastern  and  southern  coasts.  To  some  extent  the  rela- 
tive shortness  of  the  plateau  population,  whose  average  stature 
ranges  from  160  cm.  to  164  cm.,  is  doubtless  due  to  the  economic 
poverty  of  the  region  as  contrasted  with  the  southern  and  east- 
ern coasts,  but  may  also  be  attributed  in  part  to  the  influence 
of  the  short,  brachycephalic  Celts,  who  settled  mainly  in  the 
plateau.  The  taller  statures  of  the  south  and  east  do  not  exceed 
an  average  of  167  cm. 

In  pigmentation  the  peoples  of  the  Iberian  peninsula  are 
prevailingly,  and  as  a rule  strongly,  brunet.  Blond  types  seem 
to  occur  in  noticeable  porportion  chiefly  in  the  northwest.  Here, 
especially  in  the  shore  population,  a considerable  number  of  tall, 
blond  or  blondish  individuals  occur,  the  proportion  rising  in  the 
case  of  the  fishing  population  of  the  northern  coast  of  the  Portu- 
guese province  of  Minho,1  to  as  high  as  70  per  cent. 

The  results  of  the  study  of  the  living  population  may  be  ten- 
tatively correlated  with  the  archaeological  data  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows : The  old  Mediterranean  type,  of  medium  or  under  medium 
stature  and  brunet  character,  dominant  in  Neolithic  times  ap- 
parently throughout  most  of  the  peninsula,  still  forms  the  under- 
lying stratum  of  the  people,  except  in  the  Cantabrian  region, 
the  northern  Portuguese  coast,  and  in  the  extreme  south.  In 
the  upper  basin  of  the  Douro,  perhaps  in  southern  and  central 
Portugal  and  in  the  basin  of  the  Ebro,  it  is  probably  fairly  pure, 
but  in  the  region  of  the  plateau  has  been  considerably  blended 
with  the  Alpine  factors  brought  in  by  the  Celtic  and  other  immi- 
grants from  the  north,  during  the  Bronze  and  later  periods. 
These,  however,  appear  to  have  settled  in  largest  numbers  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Cantabrian  range.  The  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- 

1 Cardoso,  1905-08. 


158 


EUROPE 


Australoid  factors,  which  were  strong  in  Neolithic  times  and 
earlier,  have  apparently  been  driven  back  into  the  more  isolated 
mountain  districts  of  northeastern  Portugal,  of  Murcia  and  Va- 
lencia, and  of  the  Pyrenees.  An  example  of  this  type  is  shown 
on  Plate  IV,  Fig.  3.  The  later  “Nordic”  factors  coming  in 
in  historic  times  survive  mainly  along  the  northwestern  coast. 
In  comparison  with  France,  the  Iberian  peninsula  has  received 
far  greater  influences  from  Africa;  while  the  barrier  of  the  Pyre- 
nees has  in  considerable  measure  protected  it  from  the  floods  of 
Palae- Alpine  and  Alpine  peoples  which  from  Neolithic  times  on- 
ward have  poured  into  France. 

In  tracing  the  early  history  of  the  region  mention  has  been 
made  of  the  Basques,  that  small  group  of  peculiar  people  at  the 
western  end  of  the  Pyrenees,  who  in  the  sixth  century  or  there- 
abouts spread  across  the  mountains  into  the  edge  of  southwest- 
ern France,  so  that  at  present  they  are  found  on  both  sides  of 
the  political  frontier.  The  peculiar  character  of  their  language 
early  attracted  attention,  and  their  origins  and  affiliations  have 
been  the  subject  of  voluminous  discussions.  Some,  like  Col- 
lignon,1  have  declared  the  Basque  to  constitute  a definite  “race,” 
others,  such  as  Aranzadi,2  himself  a Basque,  regard  them  as  a 
mixed  type.  In  view  of  the  importance  which  the  Basque  ques- 
tion has  assumed,  it  will  be  necessary  to  treat  the  problem  briefly 
here. 

The  first  point  to  be  noted  is  that  one  feature  seems  to  dis- 
tinguish the  Basque  throughout  the  area  of  his  distribution,  i.  e., 
his  peculiar  type  of  face.  This  is  one  which  is  wide  in  the  fore- 
head and  upper  portion,  but  narrows  to  a pointed  chin  below, 
producing  a curious  triangular  form,  well  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion given  on  Plate  IV,  Fig.  4.  The  second  is  that  analysis 
of  the  data  on  the  living  shows  that  the  French  and  Spanish 
Basques  differ  considerably  in  most  other  respects.  As  com- 
pared to  the  Spanish,  the  French  Basques  are  taller  and  have 
more  strongly  brachy cephalic  and  higher  skulls;  in  other  words, 
are,  so  far  as  cranial  characters  are  concerned,  more  clearly  Alpine 

1 Collignon,  1895.  2 Aranzadi,  1889. 


THE  ITALIAN  AND  SPANISH  PENINSULAS 


159 


in  type  and  thus  similar  to  the  dominant  factors  in  southwestern 
France.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Spanish  Basques  appear  to  be 
a blend  between  this  and  the  Mediterranean  type  which  forms 
the  substratum  in  the  Iberian  area. 

Fortunately  we  possess  detailed  measurements  of  two  series 
of  crania  of  Spanish  Basques,1  which  enable  us  to  judge  their 
characteristics,  at  least,  with  greater  certainty.  The  Guipuzcoa 
series,  which  may  be  supposed  to  represent  the  purer  Basque 
type,  is  primarily  dolichocephalic,  the  Mediterranean  type  being 
clearly  predominant.  The  brachycephalic  factor  is  almost 
equally  divided  between  the  Alpine  and  the  Ural  types.  The 
female  crania  show  significant  differences.  Although  dolicho- 
cephalic by  a narrow  margin,  the  relative  proportions  of  the  dif- 
ferent types  are  completely  changed.  The  Ural  is  here  the  most 
numerous  element,  followed  by  the  Proto-Australoid,  the  Medi- 
terranean dropping  to  third  place.  The  other  series  from  Zaraus, 
on  the  coast  just  west  of  San  Sebastian,  differs  from  the  first  in 
that  the  males  show  a greatly  reduced  proportion  of  the  Medi- 
terranean and  Ural  types  and  an  increase  in  the  Alpine,  together 
with  the  presence  of  small  factors  of  the  Caspian  and  Proto- 
Negroid,  which  were  not  represented  before.  The  females,  on 
the  other  hand,  have  the  Mediterranean  as  the  chief  factor,  and 
the  Ural  type,  although  only  in  the  minority,  is  nevertheless 
three  times  as  important  as  in  the  male  crania. 

The  probable  interpretation  of  these  facts  would  seem  to  be 
that,  in  the  first  place,  the  Basques  of  the  coast  are  mixed  with 
a considerable  Alpine  element  attributable  to  the  Celtic  and 
earlier  immigrants,  whose  presence  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
Cantabrian  range  has  already  been  referred  to.  It  may  be  ex- 
pected that  when  detailed  data  for  the  French  Basques  are  avail- 
able, they  will  be  found  to  resemble  these.  In  the  second  place, 
we  may  infer  that  the  distinctive  character  of  the  purer  Basques 
of  Guipuzcoa  lies  in  the  presence  of  a large  factor  of  the  Ural 
type.  As  there  are  available  for  comparison,  unfortunately,  no 
other  cranial  series  for  any  portion  of  Spain  or  southwestern 

1 Aranzadi,  1914. 


160 


EUROPE 


France,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  prove  that  the  Ural  type  is 
present  among  the  Basques  to  a larger  degree  than  in  the  rest  of 
the  population,  although  this  will,  I believe,  be  found  ultimately 
to  be  the  case.  If  this  is  true,  we  should  have  to  regard  the 
modern  Basques  as  the  result  of  the  mixture  of  a people  pre- 
dominantly of  the  Ural  type  with  one  in  whom  the  Mediterra- 
nean element  was  of  primary  importance.  The  latter  require- 
ment is  met,  it  would  seem,  by  the  fundamental  stratum  of  the 
Spanish  population.  As  there  is  as  yet  no  evidence  to  lead  us 
to  believe  that  the  Ural  type  was  present  in  the  peninsula  before 
the  coming  of  the  Mediterranean,  we  must  accept  it  as  a later 
immigrant.  That  a substantial  factor  was  present  on  the  Gra- 
nada coast  in  Eneolithic  times  has  already  been  noted;  it  is  found 
as  an  important  element  in  the  Neolithic  population  of  Belgium 
and,  in  all  probability,  also  of  France,  although  this  is,  from  the 
character  of  the  data,  as  yet  incapable  of  direct  proof.  Yet  the 
belief  in  its  presence  in  France  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  it 
still  survives  in  strength  in  two  areas  at  least.  In  Aveyron,  in 
the  southern  Cevennes,  the  small  series  of  modern  crania  which 
we  have  shows  it  to  be  the  predominant  type,  while  the  larger 
series  from  the  Haut  Morvan,1  on  the  northern  edge  of  the  Mas- 
sif Central,  reveals  it  as  second  only  to  the  Palae- Alpine;  that  it 
is  also  to  be  found  in  Auvergne  and  in  Brittany  seems  probable. 

Discussion  of  the  wider  distribution  of  the  Ural  type  in 
Europe  must  be  left  for  consideration  in  the  final  chapter;  enough 
has  been  said,  however,  to  show  that  this  factor,  which  appeared 
to  differentiate  the  Basques  from  their  neighbors,  is  one  which 
was  in  early  times,  as  well  as  to-day,  of  equal  importance  in  the 
adjacent  parts  of  Europe.  What,  then,  is  there  left  to  mark  the 
Basques  as  racially  different  from  the  surrounding  Spanish  and 
French-speaking  population?  The  answer  seems  to  be  nothing  ! 
Yet  all  authorities  agree  that  the  Basque  does  differ  from  his 
neighbors  in  having  a peculiar  type  of  face.  As  has  been  pointed 
out,  there  is  evidently  no  single  factor  to  which  any  peculiarity 
in  the  Basque  can  be  reasonably  ascribed;  there,  is,  however,  a 
unique  combination  of  factors  to  which  perhaps  their  character- 

1 Hovelacque,  1894. 


THE  ITALIAN  AND  SPANISH  PENINSULAS 


161 


istics  may  be  traced.  In  France,  in  Switzerland,  in  northern 
Italy,  etc.,  wherever  the  Ural  type  is  found  as  an  important  ele- 
ment in  the  European  population  of  to-day,  the  types  with  which 
it  is  associated  and  blended  are  in  great  majority  other  brachy- 
cephalic  forms.  In  the  Basque,  however,  it  is  blended  with  the 
dolichocephalic  Mediterranean,  and  it  is  to  this  peculiar  com- 
bination of  types,  which  occurs,  so  far  as  I am  aware,  nowhere 
else,  that  the  characteristic  features  of  the  Basques,  I believe, 
are  due.  The  theory  that  the  Basques  were  a mixed  folk  and 
owed  their  triangular  type  of  face  to  their  being  a blend  between 
a brachycephalic  and  a dolichocephalic  people  is  far  from  new. 
The  theory  was,  however,  obviously  unsatisfactory,  since  there 
were  many  other  peoples  in  Europe  who,  although  also  the  result 
of  a similar  mixture,  showed  no  trace  of  the  peculiarity  which 
such  a blending  was  supposed  to  have  produced  in  the  case  of  the 
Basques.  The  present  suggestion,  in  that  it  traces  the  origin  of 
a unique  form  of  facial  features  to  a combination  of  physical 
types  which  is  also  unique,  stands,  I believe,  on  much  more 
stable  foundations.  If  we  add  the  interesting  suggestion  made 
by  Ripley  of  an  intensification  of  this  peculiarity  through  con- 
scious selection,  the  puzzle  of  the  “Basque  type”  seems  in  a 
fair  way  of  being  solved. 

There  remains,  however,  the  question  of  the  language.  Are 
we  to  regard  it  as  a survival  by  some  freak  of  circumstance  of 
the  speech  of  those  late  Neolithic  or  early  Bronze  Age  immi- 
grants, who  presumably  penetrated  into  Spain  from  the  north, 
or  shall  we  accept  it  as  the  last  surviving  remnant  of  the  ancient 
Iberian  speech,  possessed  by  the  older  population  of  Mediter- 
ranean type  ? If  we  accept  the  first  alternative,  we  must  believe 
that  a language  which,  if  we  are  to  judge  from  the  general  dis- 
tribution of  the  Ural  type,  must  once  have  been  widely  spread 
over  much  of  western  and  central  Europe,  has  everywhere  else 
disappeared.  This  is  possible,  perhaps,  but  the  other  view  seems 
to  be  somewhat  more  probable,  since  there  is  some  concrete  evi- 
dence of  the  wide  distribution  of  Basque  place-names,  etc.,  in 
other  parts  of  the  peninsula. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  JEWS  AND  THE  GIPSIES 

Both  Jew  and  Gipsy  are  men  without  a country,  but,  although 
cosmopolitan  in  their  distribution,  they  are  most  numerous  in 
Europe,  and  so  may  best  be  treated  in  connection  with  European 
peoples. 

I.  The  Jews 

The  questions  of  the  racial  origin  and  unity  of  the  Jews  have 
for  long  been  fertile  themes  for  discussion.  The  traditional  view 
has  always  been  that  they  were  a true  Semitic  people,  and,  in- 
deed, the  term  Semite  has  popularly  come  to  be  practically  synon- 
ymous with  Jew.  They  were  regarded  as  a people  whose  purity 
of  blood  had,  in  spite  of  wide  dispersion,  been  jealously  pre- 
served throughout  the  centuries.  As  soon,  however,  as  detailed 
investigations  in  regard  to  Jewish  physical  types  began  to  be 
available,  it  appeared  that  it  was  extremely  doubtful  whether 
either  of  these  assumptions  was  true,  for  the  Jews  proved  to  be 
by  no  means  uniform  in  their  physical  characteristics,  and  the 
great  majority  appeared  to  be  of  a different  type  from  that 
found  among  other  Semitic-speaking  peoples.  In  recent  years 
the  data  bearing  upon  the  whole  question  have  been  greatly  aug- 
mented, and  it  seems  possible  to-day  to  arrive  at  conclusions 
which  are  reasonably  certain.  These  may  best  be  made  clear 
by  reversing  our  usual  order  of  treatment,  considering  in  the  first 
place  the  physical  characters  of  the  modern  Jew  and  then  seek- 
ing from  archaeological  and  historical  sources  an  explanation  of 
the  facts. 

Europe  is  the  homeland  of  the  great  majority  of  modern 
Jews,  the  larger  proportion  being  to-day  (or  having  formerly 
been)  residents  of  western  Russia,  Poland,  and  Germany.  These 

162 


THE  JEWS  AND  THE  GIPSIES 


163 


East  European  Jews  constitute  the  so-called  Ashkenazim  branch 
of  the  people  and  include  probably  more  than  nine-tenths  of  the 
total  of  the  world’s  Jewish  population.  The  smaller  branch,  the 
Sephardim,  are  the  survivors  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
Jews  expelled  from  Spain  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
and  to  be  found  now  mainly  in  the  Balkan  peninsula,  in  Smyrna, 
Palestine,  and  parts  of  northern  Africa,  while  smaller  colonies 
exist  in  London  and  Amsterdam.  The  Sephardim  generally  re- 
gard themselves  as  a sort  of  aristocracy,  holding  more  or  less 
aloof  from  the  other  Jews,  and  claiming  to  represent  the  purest 
survivors  of  the  original  Hebrews.  We  may  therefore  well  begin 
our  study  of  Jewish  physical  types  with  them. 

For  the  Sephardim,  as  for  practically  all  other  Jews,  the  only 
data  available  are  measurements  on  the  living,  since  Jewish 
crania  are  well-nigh  impossible  to  secure.  For  the  English  group 
we  have  only  the  rather  unreliable  data  of  Jacobs,  which  appear 
to  indicate  an  average  mesocephaly,  substantially  similar  to  the 
figure  for  the  London  Ashkenazim.  A small  group  in  northern 
Italy  are  in  the  average  brachycephalic,  although  less  so  than 
the  surrounding  Italian  population.  The  Spanioli  in  Bosnia, 
who  came  thither  from  Constantinople  and  Salonika  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  hover  in  average  about  the  lower  border  of 
brachycephaly,  and  seem  to  comprise  about  75  per  cent  of  lep- 
torrhine,  brachycephalic  factors  (presumably  in  the  main  of 
Alpine  type),  and  about  20  per  cent  of  leptorrhine,  dolicho- 
cephalic types.  Our  best  and  most  abundant  material,  however, 
is  that  obtained  from  the  Spanioli  of  Constantinople  and  Jeru- 
salem.1 This  shows  both  these  groups  to  be  by  small  majority 
dolichocephalic,  and  to  consist  of  a mixture  of  narrow-nosed 
dolichocephalic  and  brachycephalic  types.  A small  series  of 
crania  from  Constantinople  shows  a marked  predominance  of 
the  former  factors.  It  is  only,  therefore,  in  Constantinople  and 
Jerusalem  that  the  Sephardim  show  a majority  of  the  leptorrhine, 
dolichocephalic  types  characteristic  of  the  Semitic-speaking 
Arabs,  whereas  in  Bosnia  and  London,  and  especially  in  Italy, 

1 Weissenberg,  1909  b. 


164 


EUROPE 


the  brachycephalic  probably  Alpine  type,  is  clearly  or  even 
strongly  predominant. 

One  of  the  main  causes  which  has  been  suggested  as  respon- 
sible for  the  variation  in  the  physical  type  of  the  Jews  is  that  of 
intermarriage  with  the  Gentile  population  among  which  they 
live,  and  it  has  frequently  been  pointed  out  that  the  Jew  thus 
generally  approximates  the  character  of  the  surrounding  peoples, 
whatever  this  may  be.  That  such  intermarriage  does  indeed 
occur  and  has  occurred  throughout  the  past,  can  be  demon- 
strated, although  the  extent  of  the  practice  is  very  hard  to  de- 
termine. The  belief  that  the  Jew  merely  reflects  the  physical 
type  of  the  Gentile  population  among  which  he  lives  we  shall 
find  to  be  borne  out  in  general  by  the  facts.  In  the  case  of  the 
Sephardim,  however,  although  it  holds  for  the  English,  Italian, 
Bosnian,  and  Jerusalem  Jews,  it  fails  in  the  case  of  those  in 
Constantinople,  for  the  surrounding  population  is  here  probably 
in  the  main  brachycephalic. 

It  will  be  shown  later  that  the  North  African  Jews,  from 
whom  in  large  measure  the  Spanish  Jews  were  derived,  are  pre- 
dominantly dolichocephalic,  so  that  it  would  appear  that  this 
original  character  had  been  best  preserved  by  the  Constantinople 
and  Jerusalem  Sephardim.  As  a group,  therefore,  we  may  con- 
sider the  Sephardim  to  be  a people  once  in  the  majority  of  Medi- 
terranean and  Caspian  types,  who  have,  except  in  the  two  cases 
noted,  been  largely  Alpinized,  in  part  perhaps  in  Spain,  but  in 
the  main  since  their  dispersal,  as  a result  of  intermarriage  with 
the  surrounding  peoples  among  whom  they  took  refuge.  In 
stature  the  Sephardim  Jew  differs  little  from  the  average  of  all 
other  European  Jews,  being  slightly  below  the  medium.  Al- 
though predominantly  brunet  in  coloring,  they  nevertheless  show 
a small  proportion  of  blond  types.  The  peculiar  form  of  nose 
which  is  commonly  denominated  “Jewish”  or  “Semitic”  and 
characterized  by  an  unusual  degree  of  “nostrility,”  is  strongly 
marked  among  the  Sephardim,  being  present  generally  in  about 
one-third  of  all  the  individuals  examined. 

The  vast  majority  of  European  Jews  and  of  those  who  have 


THE  JEWS  AND  THE  GIPSIES 


165 


migrated  thence  to  America  and  elsewhere  belong  to  the  Ash- 
kenazim. Without  exception,  apparently,  they  are  predomi- 
nantly and,  in  general,  overwhelmingly  brachy cephalic,  the  pro- 
portion of  these  factors  varying  from  about  So  per  cent  in  west- 
ern Germany  and  Poland  to  90  or  95  per  cent  in  southern  Ger- 
many and  Russia.  The  nose  is  everywhere  clearly  leptorrhine. 
Analysis  of  the  data  is  possible  only  in  the  case  of  the  Polish 
Jews,  since  for  the  others  no  individual  data  are  given.  The 
series  given  by  Elkind1  shows  that  the  leptorrhine,  brachyce- 
phalic  factors  are  those  in  the  main  concerned,  and,  although 
there  are  no  crania  to  confirm  it,  it  seems  almost  certain  that  these 
factors  are  primarily  Alpine  in  type.  The  dolichocephalic  ele- 
ment is  also  narrow-nosed  and  Mediterranean  or  Caspian,  as 
among  the  Sephardim.  In  stature  the  Ashkenazim  are  a little 
shorter  than  the  Sephardim,  this  low  stature  being  especially 
notable  in  Poland,  where  the  average  stature  of  some  groups 
falls  almost  to  160  cm.  There  seems  little  doubt  that  this  phe- 
nomenon is  due  in  large  part  to  a stunting  caused  by  the  very 
unfavorable  economic  and  industrial  conditions  under  which 
these  Polish  Jews  live.  In  pigmentation  the  Ashkenazim  is  less 
predominantly  brunet  than  the  Sephardim,  the  proportion  of 
blond  types  being  rarely  less  than  10  per  cent,  and  rising  in  some 
cases,  as  in  Galicia,  considerably  higher.  The  “Jewish,”  or 
“Semitic,”  nose  is  of  somewhat  greater  frequency  among  the 
east  European  Jews  than  among  the  Sephardim. 

Special  mention  may  be  made  here  of  the  Karaite  Jews2  of 
the  Crimea.  They  are  members  of  a small  Jewish  sect,  origi- 
nating in  Syria  in  the  eighth  century,  and  which,  except  for  the 
group  in  the  Crimea  and  a few  in  northwestern  Russia  and  in 
Egypt,  is  to-day  practically  extinct.  In  head-form  the  Crimean 
Karaite  Jews  are  practically  identical  with  the  Ashkenazim, 
showing,  if  anything,  a greater  proportion  of  brachycephalic  fac- 
tors than  the  neighboring  orthodox  Jews  of  the  Ukraine.  They 
are,  however,  somewhat  taller,  and  show  a much  smaller  pro- 
portion of  blond  types  and  of  “Semitic”  noses. 

1 Elkind,  1903.  2 Weissenberg,  1904. 


166 


EUROPE 


With  the  Ashkenazim  proper  and  the  Russian  Karaite  Jews 
we  may  class  those  of  the  Caucasus,  Central  Asia,  northern  Per- 
sia and  Syria.  The  Jews  of  the  Caucasus1  are  divided  into  two 
groups,  the  Gruzinian  living  in  the  southwest  near  the  Black 
Sea,  and  the  Mountain  Jews,  so  cadled,  of  Daghestan  and  Baku, 
at  the  Caspian  end  of  the  range.  The  latter  group,  at  least,  are 
very  ancient  residents  of  the  Caucasus,  being  traceable  at  least 
as  far  back  as  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  with  only 
little  less  certainty  for  several  centuries  more.  The  Gruzinian 
Jews  show  an  overwhelming  proportion  of  brachycephalic,  lep- 
torrhine  factors,  only  4 or  5 per  cent  of  dolichocephalic  elements 
being  present.  In  stature  they  are  just  under  medium,  and 
in  pigmentation  show  but  a very  small  proportion  of  blond 
types,  Chantre2  alone  of  several  observers  reporting  a figure  com- 
parable or  even  exceeding  the  average  for  the  Ashkenazim.  The 
“Semitic”  nose  is  of  about  the  same  frequency  as  among  these 
neighboring  Jews.  The  Mountain  Jews  are  even  more  purely 
brachycephalic  than  the  Gruzinian,  but  in  other  respects  are 
closely  similar.  One  point,  however,  may  be  of  some  signifi- 
cance, i.  e.,  that  they  appear  to  have  unusually  broad,  low  faces, 
which  would  suggest  the  probability  that  the  crania  may  in 
some  cases  be  comparably  low,  thus  indicating  the  presence  of 
an  element  of  the  Ural  type.  This  suspicion  seems  to  be  cor- 
roborated by  Kurdov’s  statement  that  he  could  very  clearly 
recognize  a Kirgiz-like  type  among  them,  for  a considerable 
Ural  factor  is  present  among  this  originally  inner  Asiatic  people. 

The  central  Asiatic  Jews3  have  long  been  residents  of  Samar- 
cand  and  Bokhara,  but,  although  perhaps  almost  as  old  residents 
as  those  of  the  eastern  end  of  the  Caucasus,  they  are  known  to 
be  racially  somewhat  mixed.  In  head-form  they  show  a notably 
smaller  proportion  of  brachycephalic  factors  than  that  found  in 
the  Caucasus,  although  in  respect  to  stature  and  absence  of 
blond  types  they  are  one  with  the  Caucasian  Jew.  The  “Se- 
mitic ” nose  is,  however,  less  common  here.  The  Jews  of  Meshed 4 

1 Kurdov,  1905  b,  1912  a;  Weissenberg,  1912  b;  Djavakov,  1913. 

2 Chantre,  1885-87.  3 Weissenberg,  1913-14.  4 Weissenberg,  1913. 


THE  JEWS  AND  THE  GIPSIES 


167 


in  northern  Persia  are  in  most  respects  identical  with  those  of 
Samarcand  and  Bokhara,  although  in  stature  they  are  quite 
noticeably  shorter.  In  Urumia,1  in  the  northwest  of  Persia,  the 
same  type  of  Jew  is  found,  although  here  there  is  observable  a 
considerable  rise  in  the  proportion  of  the  Mediterranean-Caspian 
types.  The  Syrian  Jews  of  Aleppo  and  Damascus,2  lastly,  seem 
to  form  a unit  with  those  which  have  just  been  described.  There 
are,  however,  significant  differences  between  the  two  Syrian 
groups.  The  Aleppo  Jew  is  almost  as  extreme  in  his  brachy- 
cephaly  as  his  brethren  in  the  Caucasus ; in  Damascus,  farther  to 
the  south,  the  proportion  of  dolichocephalic  factors  greatly  in- 
creases, as  does  the  frequency  of  the  so-called  “ Semitic’’  nose. 

Summing  up  these  results,  it  appears  that  the  Ashkenazim 
proper,  together  with  the  Jews  of  the  Caucasus,  central  and 
western  Asia,  are  in  head-form  primarily  brachycephalic,  and  in 
all  probability  predominantly  Alpine  in  type.  In  Germany  the 
brachycephalic  factors  increase  from  north  to  south,  from  Cologne 
and  Frankfurt  to  Baden;  in  Russia  they  attain  their  maximum 
in  the  Mountain  Jews  of  the  Caucasus,  while  the  same  figure  is 
reached  again  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Anatolian  plateau 
among  the  Jews  of  Aleppo.  Such  small  minorities  of  dolicho- 
cephalic factors  as  occur  are  universally  of  the  same  Mediterra- 
nean or  Caspian  types  which  were  found  in  much  larger  propor- 
tions among  the  eastern  Sephardim.  The  Ashkenazim  proper, 
however,  differ  from  the  Caucasian  and  Asiatic  Jews  in  their 
slight  but  definite  tendency  toward  blondness,  in  which  they 
quite  clearly  exceed  the  Sephardim  group,  as  they  do  in  many 
instances  in  the  proportion  of  “Semitic”  noses. 

The  similarity  in  head-form  between  the  Ashkenazim  and 
western  Asiatic  Jews  and  the  surrounding  peoples  is  very  strik- 
ing. Apparently  there  is  no  exception  to  this  rule.  In  Germany 
the  lower  proportion  of  brachycephalic  factors  noted  in  Cologne 
and  Frankfurt,  as  compared  with  Baden,  is  paralleled  among  the 
Gentile  German  population.  The  larger  proportion  of  dolicho- 
cephalic elements  appearing  in  the  Jews  of  Urumia,  as  compared 

1 Ibid,  2 Weissenberg,  1911, 


168 


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with  those  of  Meshed,  is  probably  also  to  be  found  among  the 
Persian  populations  of  the  two  areas,  if  we  may  judge  from  very 
meagre  and  imperfect  data;  while  the  similar  increase  in  these 
factors,  in  passing  from  the  Jews  of  Aleppo  to  those  of  Damas- 
cus, is  in  accord  with  the  greater  frequency  of  dolichocephalic 
elements  among  the  Syrian  population  of  the  south,  as  compared 
with  that  of  the  northern  border. 

The  other  groups  of  Jews  for  which  we  have  data,  those 
namely  of  southern  Persia,  Mesopotamia,  Arabia  and  North 
Africa,  form  a group  quite  different  from  the  Ashkenazim,  or  the 
majority  of  the  Sephardim.  Measurements  of  Jews  from  Shiraz,1 
in  southern  Persia,  reveal  them  as  strikingly  different  in  head- 
form  from  their  brethren  farther  north.  In  the  south  Persian 
Jew  the  dolichocephalic,  leptorrhine  elements  equal  the  brachy- 
cephalic,  Alpine  ones,  and  the  same  holds  true  in  the  case  of  those 
in  Mesopotamia.  In  this  latter  region,  moreover,  the  proportion 
of  “Semitic”  noses  rises  to  something  over  60  per  cent,  a figure 
almost  twice  as  high  as  the  average  for  the  Sephardim  Jews,  and 
much  higher  than  is  usually  the  case  among  the  Ashkenazim. 

In  Yemen,2  in  southwestern  Arabia,  the  Jews  have  been  an 
element  in  the  population  since  the  sixth  century  at  least,  and 
probably  earlier.  They  have  formed,  more  than  in  the  case  of 
almost  any  other  Jewish  group,  a closed  and  isolated  community, 
having  little  interrelation  either  with  other  Jews  or  with  the 
Arabs  among  whom  they  live.  Their  physical  characteristics  are 
therefore  of  great  interest,  as  they  may  be  presumed  to  represent 
the  Jewish  population  of  Palestine  as  it  existed  in  the  early  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  era.  They  show  a very  large  majority  of 
dolichocephalic,  leptorrhine  factors,  amounting,  indeed,  to  over 
80  per  cent,  the  remainder  being  brachycephalic  and  probably 
Alpine.  The  surrounding  Arab  population  presents  a striking 
contrast,  since  they  are  in  large  majority  Alpine.  We  have  here 
thus  repeated  the  phenomenon  noted  in  the  case  of  the  Sephardim 
in  Constantinople,  in  that  the  Jews  are  radically  different  in  type 
from  the  people  among  whom  they  live.  In  stature  these  Yemen- 

1 Weissenberg,  19x3.  2 Weissenberg,  1909  a. 


THE  JEWS  AND  THE  GIPSIES 


169 


ite  Jews  are  very  short,  averaging  less  than  160  cm.;  they  show 
no  trace  of  any  blond  element,  and  only  a small  proportion  of 
“Semitic”  noses. 

The  North  African  Jews1  may  be  divided  into  three  groups: 
those  of  Egypt;  those  of  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Morocco;  and  the 
Karaite  Jews  of  Cairo.  There  have  been  Jews  in  Egypt  since 
very  early  times,  but  with  the  foundation  of  Alexandria  they 
flocked  thither  in  large  numbers,  and  are  said  to  have  formed  a 
fifth  of  the  population  of  this  great  city  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  Considerable  groups  of  these  Jews  survive  still  in 
Alexandria  and  Cairo,  and  measurements  of  them  show  that  in 
physical  type  they  closely  approximate  the  Sephardim  of  Jeru- 
salem, since  the  leptorrhine,  dolichocephalic,  i.  e.,  Mediterranean 
and  Caspian  types,  are  in  slight  majority  over  the  brachy cephalic 
Alpines.  For  Jews  they  are  tall,  averaging  169  cm.,  and  show 
no  trace  of  any  blond  factor.  Like  the  Yemenite  Jews,  they 
have  a very  small  proportion  of  “Semitic”  noses,  ranking  in  this 
respect  below  all  the  European  Jews,  except  the  Crimean  Ka- 
raites. The  Karaite  Jews  of  Cairo  are,  as  regards  their  head- 
form,  very  like  the  Yemenite  group,  having  a large  majority  of 
the  Mediterranean-Caspian  types.  In  stature,  absence  of  blond- 
ness, and  small  proportion  of  “Semitic”  noses,  the  Karaites  agree 
with  the  orthodox  Cairene  Jews.  The  contrast  which  they  pre- 
sent, however,  with  their  Crimean  brethren  is  radical,  at  least 
in  head-form,  for  whereas  the  Cairene  Karaite  is  dominantly  and 
strongly  dolichocephalic,  the  Crimean  group  is  equally  strongly 
brachycephalic. 

The  Jews  of  the  North  African  coast,  from  Tunis  to  Morocco, 
although  not  as  ancient  residents  as  those  in  Egypt,  have  never- 
theless been  settled  in  the  country  at  least  since  the  second  cen- 
tury A.  D.  By  the  fifth  century  they  were  numerous,  and  had 
converted  to  Judaism  several  Berber  tribes,  who  offered  vigorous 
opposition  to  the  advance  of  the  Moslem  conquerors  a century 
or  two  later.  In  the  eighth  century,  after  the  establishment  of 
Moorish  rule  in  Spain,  large  numbers  migrated  thither  and 

1 Weissenberg,  1912  a;  Fishberg,  1905. 


170 


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formed  the  basis  of  the  Spanish  Jews.  In  physical  type  these 
North  African  Jews  show,  apparently,  some  local  variation,  for, 
although  probably  all  have  a majority  of  the  dolichocephalic, 
Mediterranean-Caspian  types,  this  factor  is  somewhat  less 
marked  in  Morocco  than  elsewhere.  Further,  although  the 
brachycephalic  factors  are  primarily  Alpine,  a small  platyrrhine 
element  appears,  whose  significance  will  be  apparent  in  a mo- 
ment. The  North  African  Jews  show  no  trace  of  blondness,  and 
have  a somewhat  larger  proportion  of  “Semitic”  noses  than  the 
Jews  of  Egypt,  approximating  in  this  respect  the  Sephardim 
group  in  Europe. 

If  we  compare  the  North  African  Jews  with  their  non-Jewish 
neighbors,  we  find  in  most  respects  a striking  accord.  Through- 
out the  whole  region  the  population  is  predominantly  dolicho- 
cephalic, and  in  the  main  of  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  types, 
these  elements  being  somewhat  more  strongly  marked  in  Egypt 
than  in  the  west,  just  as  among  the  Jews.  If,  as  the  evidence 
seems  to  indicate,  the  early  Jewish  immigrants  into  Egypt  were 
predominantly  dolichocephalic,  intermarriage  with  the  Gentile 
would  not  lead  to  any  observable  results,  since  Jew  and  Gentile 
alike  were  of  similar  types.  In  the  region  farther  west,  however, 
the  conditions  are  slightly  different,  i.  e.,  the  known  conversion 
of  large  numbers  of  Berbers  to  Judaism  in  the  early  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era.  Now,  as  will  be  pointed  out  in  the  chapter 
dealing  with  northern  Africa,  the  ancient  population  of  the 
coast  region,  although  primarily  dolichocephalic,  included  never- 
theless a considerable  brachycephalic  element,  and,  especially,  a 
small  but  persistent  factor  of  the  Mongoloid  type.  As  pointed 
out  above,  the  Jews  of  this  region  to-day  show  a small,  broad- 
nosed, round-headed  factor,  which  does  not  appear  among  any 
other  Jewish  group  in  the  world,  so  far  as  known.  The  inference 
is,  therefore,  that  this  is  probably  derived  from  the  early  Berber 
converts,  whose  descendants  must  thus  to-day  form  an  appre- 
ciable element  in  the  total  Jewish  population.  This  suggestion 
meets  with  a difficulty,  however,  in  that,  although  the  Berbers 
have,  as  is  well  known,  a small  but  often  striking  blond  element, 


THE  JEWS  AND  THE  GIPSIES 


171 


no  trace  of  this  is  reported  among  the  Jews.  It  may,  neverthe- 
less, be  regarded  as  certain  that  the  North  African  Jew  was  origi- 
nally pretty  strongly  long-headed,  and  since  the  Spanish  Jews 
were  in  large  part  of  North  African  origin,  the  source  of  the 
Mediterranean-Caspian  element  among  the  Sephardim  group 
seems  to  be  explained. 

Summarizing  the  general  results  of  this  tedious  survey  of  the 
modern  Jews,  it  is  clear  that  they  fall  into  two  rather  sharply 
contrasted  groups.  The  smaller  comprises  the  North  African 
and  Yemenite  Jews,  the  Sephardim  of  Constantinople  and  Jeru- 
salem, and  perhaps  the  Mesopotamian  and  south  Persian  groups, 
all  of  which  show  a varying  predominance  of  the  Mediterranean- 
Caspian  types,  with  a brachycephalic  minority,  in  the  main 
probably  Alpine.  The  larger  division  includes  all  the  European 
Jews,  together  with  those  of  the  Caucasus,  Central  Asia,  and  the 
northern  parts  of  Persia  and  Syria,  all  of  these  being  primarily 
and  in  some  cases  overwhelmingly  brachycephalic  and  Alpine, 
with  a small  minority  of  the  same  long-headed  types  which  were 
dominant  in  the  other  group.  The  characteristic  features  of  the 
first  group  appear  in  greatest  strength  among  the  Jews  of  Yemen, 
while  the  Caucasian  and  north  Syrian  Jews  exemplify  those  of 
the  second  group  in  their  most  extreme  form.  The  supposedly 
characteristic  “Semitic”  nose  is  in  general  present  in  somewhat 
larger  proportions  among  the  Ashkenazim  than  among  the  Seph- 
ardim; it  is  apparently  least  common  among  the  Karaites,  both 
of  the  Crimea  and  of  Egypt  and  (curiously)  the  North  Persian 
Jews,  while  it  reaches  its  greatest  frequency  among  the  Jews  of 
Mesopotamia  and  Damascus. 

Which  of  these  two  groups,  the  dolichocephalic  or  the  brachy- 
cephalic, represents  the  original  Jew?  And  whichever  we  regard 
as  the  true  Jews,  how  are  we  to  account  for  the  existence  of  the 
other?  The  answer  to  these  questions  must  be  sought  in  part 
in  a comparison  of  the  Jew  with  his  neighbors,  in  part  from  the 
history  of  the  Jewish  dispersion,  and  in  part  in  what  we  know  or 
can  surmise  in  regard  to  the  character  of  the  ancient  population 
of  Palestine.  The  modern  Fellahin  of  Palestine  as  well  as  the 


172 


EUROPE 


Samaritans,  are,  according  to  Weissenberg’s1  results,  predomi- 
nantly dolichocephalic  peoples,  considerably  above  medium  stat- 
ure, the  Samaritans  exhibiting  both  of  these  characters  more 
strongly  than  the  Palestinian  peasant.  In  proportion  of  “Se- 
mitic ” noses,  the  several  groups  differ  widely,  the  Fellahin  of  Jaffa, 
on  the  coast,  showing  this  feature  in  only  16  per  cent  of  the 
cases,  whereas  among  those  of  Safed  farther  north,  and  in  the 
interior,  the  figure  rises  to  37  per  cent,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
Samaritans  it  reaches  70  per  cent ! The  question  of  head-form 
is,  however,  complicated  by  the  fact  that  Huxley2  found  the 
upland  interior  population,  at  least  of  Samaria,  to  be  strongly 
brachy cephalic ! His  series  of  crania,  however,  from  Nablus3  in- 
dicates a considerable  dolichocephalic  majority,  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  Caspian  types  being  predominant.  In  view  of  the 
wide  divergence  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  two  observers,  we 
must  regard  the  population  as  probably  very  much  mixed.  One 
outcome  is  nevertheless  clear,  i.  e.,  that  the  proportion  of  so- 
called  “Semitic”  noses  is  very  much  greater  among  the  non- 
Jewish  population  than  it  is  among  the  Jews  themselves,  either 
here  or  anywhere  else  in  the  world,  a fact  that  would  seem  to 
suggest  that  this  feature  is,  after  all,  not  a specifically  Jewish 
characteristic ! 

In  a later  chapter,  dealing  with  the  racial  types  of  Syria,  Pales- 
tine, Mesopotamia,  and  Arabia,  it  is  pointed  out  that  we  are 
probably  justified  in  believing  the  people  of  Palestine  and  the 
adjacent  country  to  have  been,  in  the  second  or  third  millennium 
B.  C.,  primarily  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  types. 
Brachycephalic,  Alpine  peoples,  such  as  the  Hittites  and  related 
groups,  had,  however,  probably  very  early  worked  their  way 
southward  from  the  Anatolian  plateau  along  the  Syrian  uplands 
as  far,  at  least,  as  the  northern  border  of  Palestine.  These 
northerners  were,  as  we  know,  furthermore  characterized  by  the 
possession  of  the  same  “Semitic”  nose  which  has  come  to  be 
popularly  regarded  as  so  typically  Jewish.  This  peculiar  form 
of  nose  was  not  only  then  marked  in  the  population  of  the  Asia 
1 Weissenberg,  1910.  2 Huxley,  1905.  3 A.  M.  N.  H. 


THE  JEWS  AND  THE  GIPSIES 


173 


Minor  region,  but  is  still  very  common  among  the  remnants  of 
the  old  pre-Turkish  peoples,  such,  for  example,  as  the  Takhtadjy 
of  Lycia  and  the  Armenians. 

The  brachycephalic,  “nosy”  immigrants  from  the  north  had 
doubtless  mixed  to  some  extent  with  the  earliest  Canaanite 
Semitic  settlers,  and  the  later  Hebrews,  coming  into  Palestine  in 
the  second  millennium  B.  C.,  must  have  absorbed  not  a little  of 
this  element,  either  by  intermarriage  with  the  Canaanites  or 
with  pure  remnants  of  the  Anatolian  group,  or  by  conversion. 
This  result  probably  occurred  irregularly,  although  the  mixtures 
were  probably  more  common  in  the  north  than  in  the  south, 
where  the  mass  of  the  Hebrews  probably  retained  substantially 
unchanged  the  physical  characteristics  with  which  they  came 
into  Palestine.  That  these  were  predominantly  dolichocephalic 
seems  probable,  yet  the  possibility  that  some  round-headed  fac- 
tors may  have  been  brought  from  southern  Arabia  must  not  be 
forgotten.  The  population  of  Palestine  and  western  Syria  was 
thus  probably  much  mixed  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  millen- 
nium, although  not  so  much  so  as  it  is  to-day.  That  some  por- 
tion, at  least,  of  the  Jewish  people  at  this  period  were  already 
marked  by  the  same  peculiar  type  of  nose  which  was  also  found 
among  the  Hittites,  is  shown  by  the  representations  of  the  Jew- 
ish prisoners  on  the  famous  Black  Obelisk  of  Shalmaneser  II, 
dating  from  the  ninth  century  B.  C. 

With  the  dispersion,  the  conditions  under  which  different 
groups  of  the  refugees  or  settlers  lived  were  very  different. 
Those  who  spread  westward  and  southward  came  among  peoples 
who  were  physically  more  or  less  closely  allied  to  the  original 
Hebrew  group,  having  a considerable  majority  of  Mediterranean 
and  Caspian  factors.  Those  whose  fate  it  was  to  settle,  volun- 
tarily or  as  forced  colonists,  in  Anatolia,  Armenia,  northern 
Persia,  Central  Asia,  and  the  Caucasus  were  in  quite  a different 
position.  Here  they  were  in  the  midst  of  peoples  primarily 
brachycephalic,  and,  in  part  at  least,  characterized  by  the  posses- 
sion of  the  miscalled  “Semitic”  nose.  To  some  extent  by  inter- 
marriage, in  larger  part  probably  by  conversion,  these  features 


174 


EUROPE 


became  more  and  more  prevalent  among  the  Jewish  population 
of  the  northern  borders  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Caucasus  region. 
The  most  important  single  factor,  however,  in  the  differentiation 
of  these  Jews  of  the  Asiatic  borderlands,  from  whom  in  very  large 
part  the  Ashkenazim  of  Europe  were  derived,  was  the  conversion 
to  Judaism  in  the  eighth  century  of  the  Khazars.  This  people, 
whose  early  history  is  still  obscure,  were  perhaps  a branch  of  the 
inner  Asiatic  Turkish-speaking  folk,  who  by  the  opening  of  the 
Christian  era  were  beginning  to  penetrate  into  eastern  Europe; 
perhaps  in  part  derived  from  some  of  the  ancient  population  of 
the  Caucasus.  They  had  for  five  or  six  centuries  held  much  of 
the  region  north  of  the  Caucasus  and  between  the  Caspian  and 
the  Black  Seas.  A city-building,  strongly  commercial  people, 
with  well-organized  government,  they  built  up  a powerful  em- 
pire whose  influence  spread  far  into  the  heart  of  Russia,  into 
which  the  Slav  had  as  yet  hardly  come.  Great  numbers  of  Jews 
are  known  to  have  settled  among  the  Khazars,  and  their  conver- 
sion to  Judaism  followed.  In  the  tenth  century,  however,  the 
Khazars  were  crushed  by  the  rising  power  of  the  Slavs  and  scat- 
tered far  and  wide.  In  these  widely  dispersed,  strongly  commer- 
cial people  converted  to  the  Jewish  faith,  and  in  the  great  num- 
bers of  Jews  from  the  Caucasus  and  the  northern  borders  of  Asia 
Minor,  who  had  there  been  brachycephalized  through  centuries 
of  contact  with  the  surrounding  population,  we  may  in  all  prob- 
ability see  the  origin  of  the  great  mass  of  the  east  European  Jews 
of  to-day.  We  have,  it  is  true,  no  direct  evidence  as  to  the  phys- 
ical type  of  the  Khazars,  but  there  is  much  indirect  evidence  to 
the  effect  that  they  were,  like  the  later  immigrant  groups  from 
inner  Asia  and  all  the  original  peoples  of  the  Caucasus,  primarily 
of  Alpine  type.  How  far  the  Jew,  like  all  the  rest  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Europe,  has  been  further  brachycephalized  within  the  last 
four  or  five  hundred  years,  it  is,  in  the  absence  of  adequate  cranial 
material,  impossible  to  say.  Our  only  evidence  is  the  small 
series  of  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century  skulls  from  Basel,  in 
Switzerland,  described  by  Kollmann,1  which  show  approximately 

1 Kollmann,  1885  b. 


THE  JEWS  AND  THE  GIPSIES 


175 


the  same  high  proportion  of  brachycephalic  elements  as  do  the 
modern  Jews  of  Baden,  who  are  the  nearest  group  with  which 
comparison  can  be  made.  To  how  great  an  extent,  further,  the 
perpetuation  and  even  intensification  of  the  peculiar  type  of 
nose  (popularly  considered  as  distinctively  “Jewish,”  but  which 
we  have  seen  to  have  been  in  all  probability  derived  from  a 
wholly  different  source)  may  be  traced  to  conscious  selection,  in 
that  a certain  type  of  features  became  in  a way  a popular  Jewish 
ideal,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  say.  Instances  of  this  sort  of  con- 
scious selection  are  known  or  suspected  in  the  case  of  several 
other  peoples  in  the  world,  and  it  may  be  that  it  has  played 
some  part  among  the  Jews. 

In  conclusion,  if,  as  is  probable,  the  northern  Arabs  or  Bedouin 
of  to-day  are  to  be  regarded  as  the  best  modern  representatives, 
from  the  racial  point  of  view,  of  the  very  early  Semitic-speaking 
peoples  of  whom  the  original  Hebrews  were  a part,  then  the 
great  majority  of  all  the  Jews  to-day  are  “Semites”  only  in 
speech,  and  their  true  ancestry  goes  back  not  so  much  to  Pales- 
tine and  Arabia  as  to  the  uplands  of  Anatolia  and  Armenia,  the 
Caucasus  and  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia,  and  their  nearest  rela- 
tives are  still  to  be  found  in  those  areas  to-day. 

II.  The  Gipsies 

The  Gipsies,  like  the  Jews,  are  a people  without  a country, 
and  are  widely  scattered  throughout  the  world,  although  the 
majority  are  to  be  found  in  Europe,  mainly  in  the  Balkan  region. 
Coming  probably  from  some  part  of  northwestern  India,  they 
appear  to  have  migrated  westward  through  Persia  and  Armenia, 
reaching  the  eastern  part  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  somewhere 
about  the  eleventh  century,  but  not  beginning  to  spread  in  large 
numbers  thence  over  the  rest  of  Europe  until  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century. 

Although  there  is  a voluminous  literature  relating  to  the 
Gipsies,  data  on  their  physical  characteristics  are  scanty  and 
confined  mainly  to  the  Balkan  groups.  Pittard1  has  collected  a 

1 Pittard,  1920. 


17G 


EUROPE 


very  large  number  of  measurements  here,  but  has  not  yet  pub- 
lished them  in  full.  From  the  summary  of  his  results  and  from 
other  sources  it  appears  that  within  the  Balkan  region  the 
Gipsies  are  quite  variable.  Pittard,  on  nearly  800  mainly  from 
the  Dobrudja,  found  them  to  be  a people  just  below  medium 
stature,  strongly  brunet,  and  with  a large  majority  of  leptor- 
rhine,  dolichocephalic  factors,  the  remainder  being  of  brachy- 
cephalic,  leptorrhine  types.  Weisbach1  in  Hungary  found  the 
stature  substantially  the  same,  but  the  head-form  predominantly 
Alpine,  a type  which  in  the  Dobrudja  is  only  in  the  minority. 

Cranial  material  is  both  meagre  and  incomplete,  so  that  pre- 
cise determination  of  types  is  impossible,  yet  it  seems  to  be  prac- 
tically certain  that  the  fundamental  stratum  among  the  Gipsies 
is  a mixture  of  the  Caspian  and  a small  proportion  of  Mediterra- 
nean types,  the  Alpine  factor  forming  the  minority.  It  seems 
probable  that  if  of  northwest  Indian  origin,  they  may,  before 
leaving  there,  have  had  some  Alpine  mixture  derived  from  the 
peoples  across  the  border.  This  factor  was,  however,  somewhat 
increased  in  the  course  of  their  passage  westward.  Only  after 
their  further  migrations  in  the  fifteenth  century  did  the  Alpine 
element  become  dominant,  among  such  as  mixed  with  the 
strongly  brachycephalic  populations  of  the  northern  and  west- 
ern parts  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  and  of  central  Europe. 

There  are  some  reasons  for  believing  that  the  Egyptian  and 
North  African  Gipsies  are  in  large  majority  dolichocephalic.  If 
this  is  true,  we  have  a most  interesting  parallel  between  this 
people  and  the  Jews,  in  that  both  of  them,  originally  primarily 
of  Caspian-Mediterranean  type,  have  among  the  primarily  Alpine 
and  Palae-Alpine  populations  of  Europe  diverged  widely  from 
their  original  type,  and  approximate  that  of  the  surrounding 
folk;  whereas  in  North  Africa,  where  the  mass  of  the  population 
is  largely  of  Caspian-Mediterranean  origin,  they  have  retained 
in  far  larger  measure  their  original  characteristics. 

1 Weisbach,  1889. 


BOOK  II 
AFRICA 


INTRODUCTION 


The  geographical  and  environmental  features  of  the  African 
continent,  which  have  been  of  major  importance  in  its  racial  his- 
tory, can  be  very  briefly  pointed  out.  Extending  from  the  Abys- 
sinian highlands  and  the  “Horn”  of  Africa  southward  along  the 
eastern  side  of  the  continent  to  the  Cape,  and  occupying  also 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  continent  south  of  the  fifteenth  degree 
of  south  latitude,  is  an  upland  plateau  from  three  to  five  thou- 
sand feet  in  elevation.  Throughout  its  northern  and  part  of  its 
southern  portion  it  is  mainly  grassland  and  open  woodland,  but 
in  the  south  and  west  is  largely  desert.  Along  the  northern 
coast,  from  the  Atlantic  shores  of  Morocco  to  Tunis,  there 
stretches  a second,  much  narrower  plateau  and  mountain  belt, 
rising  to  considerable  heights  in  the  Atlas  range.  Lying  between 
this  and  the  great  eastern  and  southern  uplands,  is  the  mass  of 
the  African  continent,  which  may  be  divided  into  three  broad 
belts,  running  east  and  west:  (i)  A desert  belt  in  the  north  ex- 
tending with  scattered  oases  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Red  Sea, 
and  including  the  Sahara,  together  with  the  Libyan  and  Egyp- 
tian deserts;  (2)  a grassland  belt  fringing  the  desert  on  the  south, 
and  stretching  from  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal  through  the  French 
and  British  Sudans  to  the  upper  Nile,  where  it  meets  the  eastern 
grasslands;  and  (3)  a belt  of  tropical  forest  bordering  the  whole 
northern  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  including  practically 
the  whole  of  the  Congo  Basin.  Lastly,  and  of  great  significance 
in  the  history  of  the  racial  development  of  Africa,  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  continent,  the  Nile,  rising  near  the  angle  where 
the  northern  and  eastern  grasslands  join,  flows  north,  stretching 
a narrow  ribbon  of  marvellous  fertility  across  the  eastern  edge  of 
the  desert  to  the  Mediterranean. 

There  is  probably  but  little  doubt  that  a large  part,  perhaps 
the  larger  part,  of  Africa  was  already  occupied  by  man  in  the 

179 


180 


AFRICA 


early  Palaeolithic  period.  While  clear  stratigraphic  proof  of  this 
is  as  yet  lacking,  the  evidence  of  the  Gibraltar  skull,  of  the 
Egyptian  palaeoliths,  and  of  the  Boskop  and  more  recent  Broken 
Hill  crania  found  in  the  Transvaal  and  Rhodesia,  render  the  con- 
clusion at  least  extremely  probable.  It  is,  I believe,  possible 
from  the  data  now  at  hand  to  determine  the  character  of  this 
Palaeolithic  population,  and  the  hypothesis  may  be  hazarded  that 
it  comprised  four  main  racial  elements,  the  Proto-Australoid, 
Proto-Negroid,  the  Mongoloid,  and  the  Palae-Alpine,  the  latter  in 
what  is  probably  a special  variety. 

In  the  absence  of  stratigraphic  data  it  is  difficult  to  say  what 
was  the  exact  order  of  appearance  of  these  types,  but  there  is 
much  in  the  distribution  of  these  four  forms  to-day  to  suggest 
that  the  Mongoloid  and  Proto-Australoid  represent  the  oldest 
strata.  In  zoology  it  is  a pretty  generally  accepted  theory 
that  in  any  land  area  of  considerable  size  the  marginal  types 
represent  the  older  fauna,  which  has  been  displaced  and  driven 
into  outlying  districts  or  into  refuge  areas  by  the  newer  immi- 
grants. If  we  apply  this  same  principle  to  our  physical  types, 
the  result,  so  far  at  least  as  the  Mongoloid  is  concerned,  is 
striking.  For  this  is  found  as  an  important  factor  in  the  African 
population  only  in  two  widely  separated  regions,  the  Canary 
Islands  and  the  extreme  southern  tip  of  the  continent.  In 
neither  area  does  the  type  appear  unmodified.  The  Canary 
Islands  and  the  region  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  are  the  two 
most  extreme  marginal  points  in  the  continent;  it  can  hardly  be 
accident  that  precisely  there  this  type  is  at  its  maximum.  It 
may  be  noted,  further,  that  in  two  other  regions  it  appears  as  a 
minor  factor.  One  of  these  lies  in  the  more  remote  central  por- 
tions of  the  Abyssinian  highlands,  which,  rising  like  a fortress 
above  the  lower  lands,  would  serve  as  a refuge  into  which  the 
last  remnants  of  earlier  types  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  conti- 
nent might  be  swept.  The  type  is  also  found  in  the  eastern 
Atlas,  which  for  the  north  of  the  continent  forms  something  of 
a refuge  region.  In  this  latter  region  the  type  appears  to  be 
fading  out,  since  it  is  a more  important  factor  in  the  crania 


INTRODUCTION 


181 


from  the  Carthaginian  cemeteries  (especially  among  the  women, 
who  may  be  taken  as  having  represented  more  truly  the  pre- 
Phoenician  population)  than  it  is  to-day. 

It  may  lastly  be  noted  that  faint  traces  of  this  type  are  to  be 
found  among  the  Pre-Dynastic  population  of  Egypt,  but  that 
with  the  beginning  of  the  historic  period  it  disappears.  This 
would  seem  to  show  that  some  five  or  six  thousand  years  B.  C.  the 
Mongoloid  type  was  still  faintly  discernible,  but  as  a rapidly  dis- 
appearing remnant,  in  the  Nile  valley.  That  it  was  vastly  older 
than  this  in  Africa,  however,  seems  to  be  indicated  by  the  Gi- 
braltar skull,  which  represents  a blend  between  the  Mongoloid 
and  Proto-Australoid  types.  In  connection  with  the  statement 
that  strong  Mongoloid  factors  are  found  among  the  modern  Bush- 
men and  so-called  “ Strandloopers  ” of  the  southern  tip  of  the 
continent,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  certain  Mongoloid  affinities 
of  these  people  and  the  Hottentots  have  been  noted  by  various 
writers,  such,  for  example,  as  the  peculiarly  yellowish  skin  color 
and  the  frequency  of  a pseudo-Mongoloid  fold  in  the  eye. 

Wherever  this  ancient  Mongoloid  type  makes  itself  felt  it  has 
almost  always  been  blended  with  the  Proto-Australoid,  which 
therefore  seems  by  this,  as  well  as  other  evidence,  to  be  of  equal 
(or  possibly  even  greater  age)  in  Africa.  Although  this  type  is 
much  more  widely  spread  than  the  previous  one,  yet  the  ten- 
dency toward  marginal  distribution  is  fairly  observable,  if  not 
quite  so  strikingly  as  in  the  former  case.  Among  the  present 
population  it  is  most  strongly  represented  among  the  Turu, 
Burangi,  and  Sanduwi  tribes  north  of  Lake  Nyassa,  the  Hotten- 
tot, Bushmen,  and  Kaffir,  i.  e.,  in  the  southeast  of  the  continent. 
It  also  appears  as  a not  inconsiderable  element  in  the  Abyssin- 
ian plateau  and  among  the  Ashanti  of  West  Africa.  In  the  Ca- 
naries, although  not  forming  as  large  a factor  as  in  the  southeast, 
it  was  a very  important  element  in  the  islands  of  Hierro  and 
Grand  Canary,  especially  among  the  female  portion  of  the  popu- 
lation. If  we  turn  to  archaeological  data,  it  appears  that  the 
Proto-Australoid  type  was  by  a small  margin  dominant  in  Egypt 
in  Pre-Dynastic  times  and  decreased  largely  later,  except  for  a 


182 


AFRICA 


temporary  rise  in  the  fifth  dynasty  and  again  in  Ptolemaic  times. 
The  almost  total  lack  of  satisfactory  cranial  data  for  the  rest  of 
northern  Africa,  renders  any  conclusions  as  to  early  racial  types 
there  little  more  than  guesswork,  but  from  the  fact  that  the  type 
was  strongly  represented  in  the  Palaeolithic  crania  of  southern 
France,  and  still  remained  an  important  element  at  the  beginning 
of  the  metal  ages  in  southern  Spain,  it  is  perhaps  legitimate  to 
suppose  that  in  the  adjacent  coast  of  Africa  the  type  was  well 
represented  at  the  same  early  date. 

In  the  early  Palaeolithic  period,  then,  we  may,  I believe,  think 
of  the  African  population  as  primarily  composed  of  the  Mongo- 
loid and  Proto-Australoid  types  and  their  mixtures.  Perhaps 
somewhat  sparsely  settled,  they  probably  held  most  of  the  north, 
including  large  areas  in  the  Sahara,  which  at  this  period  was  cer- 
tainly more  humid  and  suitable  for  human  occupation  that  it  is 
to-day.  Southward  they  probably  extended  to  the  edge  of  the 
forest  zone,  and,  sweeping  around  it  on  the  east,  followed  down 
the  grassland  plateaus  toward  the  southern  portion  of  the  con- 
tinent. The  Congo  basin  and  perhaps  the  Guinea  coast  were 
apparently  not  occupied. 

Perhaps  almost  as  early  as  either  of  the  two  types  just  dis- 
cussed was  the  Proto-Negroid,  which  to-day  has  a very  wide  dis- 
tribution throughout  the  continent.  The  present  available  cra- 
nial data  indicate  that  this  type  is  most  prominent  in  two  widely 
separated  regions:  first,  the  east  and  southeast,  among  the  Jagga 
of  Kilimandjaro,  the  southern  Bantu  tribes,  the  Hottentot,  and 
the  Bushmen,  and,  second,  in  the  region  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea, 
from  Cameroons  westward  to  Liberia.  The  presence,  more- 
over, of  admittedly  Negroid  crania  among  the  oldest  of  those 
known  from  the  northwestern  portions  of  the  continent;  the  dis- 
covery of  Neolithic  crania  of  Proto-Negroid  type  in  the  region 
east  of  Lake  Chad;1  the  presence  to-day  of  a strong  Proto- 
Negroid  element  in  the  Teda  or  Tibbu,  who  have  for  long  been 
settled  in  the  Tibesti  Mountains  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Sahara; 
and  the  similar  considerable  factor  in  the  population  of  Maure- 

1 Gaden,  1920. 


INTRODUCTION 


183 


tania  and  Morocco  all  give  strong  grounds  for  believing  that  the 
Proto-Negroid  type  spread  very  widely  at  a very  early  period 
throughout  the  whole  northern  part  of  the  continent,  and  that 
blends  between  this  type  and  the  somewhat  older  Proto-Aus- 
traloid made  up  a large  part  of  the  population  during  late  Palaeo- 
lithic times.  This  conclusion  is  strengthened  by  the  large  Proto- 
Negroid  factor  in  the  Pre-Dynastic  population  of  Egypt,  which 
in  this  respect  would  seem  to  have  been  on  a par  with  the  mod- 
ern Galla  or  Somali,  or  the  Beni-Amer  and  Kababish  of  Nubia. 

The  last  of  what  are  apparently  the  older  types  is  the  Palae- 
Alpine,  presenting  in  many  ways  the  most  puzzling  problems  of 
all.  It  is  in  its  distribution  to-day  concentrated  in  the  region 
of  the  great  forest  belt,  comprising  the  Congo  basin  and  the 
Guinea  coast,  with  possible  outliers  eastward  of  the  Great  Rift 
Valley.  Outside  of  this  “refuge  area”  of  the  equatorial  forest 
this  type  is,  and  seems  always  to  have  been,  but  weakly  repre- 
sented. It  was,  to  be  sure,  present  in  Egypt  in  early  Pre-Dynas- 
tic times  as  a mere  trace,  and  increased  slightly  in  importance 
up  to  the  period  of  the  Middle  Kingdom,  thereafter  declining 
again  until  it  disappeared.  At  no  time,  however,  did  it  ever 
form  an  appreciable  factor  in  the  population  of  the  Nile  valley. 
In  the  northern  coast  region  the  situation  is  obscure  owing  to 
the  absence  of  cranial  material,  but  there  appears  to  be  no  cer- 
tain evidence  of  the  early  presence  of  the  type.  The  peculiar 
small  group  of  short,  brachycephalic  peoples  existing  to-day  on 
the  island  of  Gerba  and  the  adjacent  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Gabes 
may  represent  a survival  of  this  type,  or  may,  on  the  other  hand, 
be  related  to  the  old  Mongoloid  type,  whose  presence  in  the 
Carthaginian  cemeteries  has  been  noted.  As  there  is  no  cranial 
material,  it  is  impossible  to  decide  between  these  two  alterna- 
tives. A further  point  must  be  borne  in  mind,  viz.,  that  the 
Palae- Alpine  type  in  Egypt  and  Libya  is  distinctly  less  platyrrhine 
than  it  is  in  the  heart  of  Africa,  where  it  is  in  general  associated 
with  a very  short,  true  pigmy  stature,  strongly  marked  prog- 
nathism, woolly  hair,  and  all  the  usual  Negroid  characteristics. 
The  people  whose  crania  fall  into  the  Palae-Alpine  type  in  the 


184 


AFRICA 


north  of  Africa  had,  so  far  as  we  know,  none  of  these  features,  so 
that  the  question  at  once  arises  whether  we  have  any  right  what- 
ever to  associate  with  them  the  Central  African  Pigmy  peoples, 
simply  on  account  of  the  cranial  similarities  in  the  three  single 
points  which  we  have  selected  for  our  criteria?  The  problem  of 
the  relation  of  the  Negrito  peoples  to  the  Palae-Alpine  type  will 
be  discussed  at  some  length  in  the  final  chapter,  and  I shall  only 
state  here  that,  despite  the  great  superficial  differences  between 
them,  there  are  reasons  for  believing  that  both  have  been  derived 
from  a common  source. 

In  spite  of  faint  traces  of  this  brachycephalic,  platyrrhine  type 
to  be  found  north  of  the  forest  zone,  there  seems  no  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  it  spread  as  widely  over  the  continent  as  the  types  al- 
ready discussed.  The  great  tropical  forest  area  is  in  many  ways 
a refuge  region,  and  seems  to  have  been  penetrated  and  colonized 
only  relatively  recently  by  the  Negro  peoples,  who  in  their  spread 
over  the  continent  seem  first  to  have  flowed  around  the  forest 
region  before  they  attempted  to  penetrate  it.  Thus,  here  in 
seclusion  the  Pigmy  peoples  were  able  to  preserve  their  very 
simple  culture  as  pure  hunters,  ignorant  alike  of  cattle-raising 
and  agriculture,  of  the  use  of  metals  or  the  manufacture  of  pot- 
tery, and  in  small  remnants  here  and  there  to  keep  for  us  of  the 
present  day  something  of  a picture  of  the  life  of  the  Palaeolithic 
period.  And,  although  the  numbers  of  the  Pigmies  still  surviv- 
ing in  a relatively  pure  state  seem  to  be  small,  the  greater  part 
of  the  population  of  the  Congo  basin  to-day  is  very  largely  mixed 
with  their  blood. 

Into  an  Africa  which  must  thus  have  been  in  the  main  Ne- 
groid around  a core  of  pigmy  Negritos,  with,  in  the  northwest 
and  especially  the  southeast,  considerable  remnants  of  the  fusion 
of  the  older  Mongoloid  and  Proto-Australoid  types,  there  came 
in  early  Neolithic  times  a new  factor,  destined  to  be  of  enormous 
importance  in  the  future  development  of  the  peoples  of  the  con- 
tinent. This  was  the  first  invasion  of  the  Caspian  type — tall, 
light-skinned,  with  a tendency  under  favorable  conditions  toward 
blondness.  This  new  type  came  into  Africa  from  the  northeast 


Long.  10°  West  6°  Long.  10°  East  20°  from  30°  Green.  40 


PLATE  VII.  AFRICA. 

Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  Types  (slightly  generalized). 


'0T  Can«i 


Equator 


Tropic  ol^Capricein 


from  30°  Green.  40 


20° 


PLATE  VIII.  AFRICA. 

Percentage  distribution  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  Types  (slightly  generalized). 


Equator 


7o  or  over 


Long.  10°  East  20°  from  30'  Green.  40' 


20°  Long.  i0°  West 


\ 

^ 

X mm 

mm  \ T ( 

/ 

( 11 

plilUh'  ^ \ ! 

7 

i 

o 


PLATE  IX.  AFRICA. 

Percentage  distribution  of  Palae-Alpine  and  Mongoloid  Types  (slightly  generalized). 


PLATE  X.  AFRICA. 

Percentage  distribution  of  Alpine  and  LTral  Types  (slightly  generalized). 


INTRODUCTION 


185 


by  way  of  Arabia,  through  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  from  the 
Yemen  shore  in  the  south  across  to  Abyssinia  and  the  “Horn.” 
Pastoral  in  culture,  the  newcomers  poured  into  Nubia  until  they 
became  the  main  element  in  the  population,  in  part  absorbing, 
in  part  displacing,  the  Negroid  blend  of  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- 
Australoid  types  to  the  westward,  and  passed  north,  down  the 
valley  of  the  Nile  into  Upper  Egypt,  where  and  in  Nubia  a gener- 
ally uniform  type  of  culture,  agricultural  and  pastoral,  grew  up, 
being  that  characteristic  in  the  Pre-Dynastic  period.  Farther 
to  the  north,  through  Suez,  another  stream  of  peoples  of  Caspian 
type  came  into  the  Nile  delta,  duplicating  there  the  experiences 
of  their  relatives  farther  south,  so  that  the  resulting  peoples  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Egypt  were  essentially  similar  in  the  racial  ele- 
ments involved,  only  that  in  the  north  the  proportion  of  Caspian 
type  was  larger  and  was  more  closely  related  to  the  mixed  Cas- 
pian and  Mediterranean  peoples,  who  in  northern  Arabia  were 
developing  into  the  Semitic  folk.  In  this  way  the  puzzling 
Semitic  features,  both  in  culture  and  in  speech,  of  the  old 
northern  kingdoms  of  Lower  Egypt  are,  I believe,  to  be  ex- 
plained. 

But  the  influence  of  this  new  immigrant  type  did  not  cease 
with  the  Nile  valley.  From  Abyssinia  and  the  “ Horn  of  Africa,” 
on  the  one  hand,  groups  of  the  newcomers,  with  their  cattle  and 
superior  culture,  made  their  way  southward  and  southwest  ward, 
following  the  grasslands  of  the  eastern  plateaus,  to  the  region  of 
the  great  lakes  and  beyond,  blending  with  the  older  population 
and  serving  as  a leaven,  which  gave  the  composite  group  thus 
derived  an  advantage  over  their  neighbors.  Among  them  the 
Bantu  languages  developed,  and  spread  with  them  southward 
and,  in  earlier  times  particularly,  westward  into  the  Congo  basin. 
Farther  north,  from  Nubia,  which  seems  to  have  been  a great 
reservoir  of  these  immigrants,  they  passed  west  into  the  Sudan 
and  the  region  of  the  Sahara,  finding  there  conditions  closely 
comparable  with  those  of  their  former  Arabian  deserts.  And  so, 
perhaps  as  early  even  as  late  Neolithic  times,  some  strain  of  this 
virile  group  reached  as  far  as  the  Atlantic  shores,  and  laid  the 


186 


AFRICA 


foundations  of  the  interesting  people  whose  modern  descendants 
are  the  Fula. 

The  strong  current  of  this  eastern  shepherd  folk,  which  set 
across  through  Sinai  to  the  Nile  delta,  continued  on  westward 
into  Libya,  and,  reinforcing  those  who  were  moving  west  and 
northwest  from  Nubia,  pressed  west  and  south  the  older  Negroid 
population.  In  the  north,  along  the  Mediterranean  shores  and 
in  the  eastern  Atlas,  the  newcomers  came  to  be  supreme,  forming 
the  foundation  of  the  Libyans  and  Berbers,  among  whom  as 
enclaves,  the  survivors  of  the  older  mixed  Mongoloid,  Proto- 
Australoid,  and  Proto-Negroid  peoples  long  remained.  In  the 
Sahara  proper,  however,  the  latter  element  was  still  strong,  and 
here  the  immigrants  blended  with  the  older  stock,  giving  rise  to 
peoples  like  the  modern  Tibbu  or  Teda.  Meanwhile  the  feebler 
southern  stream,  following  the  grasslands  of  the  eastern  plateaus, 
extended  its  influence  far  toward  the  southern  tip  of  the  conti- 
nent, where  the  older  Mongoloid  and  Pro  to- Australoid  blend, 
whose  descendants  formed  the  Strandloopers,  were  fusing  with 
the  advance  guards  of  the  Proto-Negroid  type  to  form  the  Bush- 
men and  Hottentot. 

For  centuries,  probably  for  millennia,  the  leaven  worked,  and 
slowly  in  the  favored  area  of  the  Nile  valley  there  grew  up  a 
higher  culture,  whose  traditions  reached  back  dimly  toward  Punt 
and  the  coast  opposite  Yemen,  along  that  road  by  which  in  the 
beginning  the  southern  stream  of  the  newcomers  had  come. 
The  Neolithic  period  thus  was  a time  in  which  the  older  peoples 
were  slowly  but  surely  driven  out  of  most  of  northern  and  north- 
eastern Africa,  their  places  being  taken  by  the  new  immigrants, 
whose  relatives  were  at  the  very  same  time  streaming  into  west- 
ern Europe  and  playing  there  a somewhat  similar  part. 

With  the  opening  of  the  historic  period  a new  influence  again 
makes  itself  felt  in  Africa;  another  new  type  appears,  at  first 
feebly  but  then  in  ever-increasing  volume  adding  its  quota  to 
the  already  existing  complex.  Whether  or  not  we  are  justified 
in  ascribing  to  the  Mediterranean  type  all  the  credit  for  the  sud- 
den advance  in  culture  which  marks  the  early  Dynastic  period  in 


INTRODUCTION 


18 1 


Egypt,  it  seems  to  be  the  fact  that  this  type  makes  its  first  ap- 
pearance in  any  strength  in  Egypt  in  the  course  of  the  First 
Dynasty.  From  the  fact  that  the  burials  in  the  Royal  Tombs 
of  the  First  and  Second  Dynasties  show  the  Mediterranean  type 
far  more  strongly  than  do  those  of  the  rest  of  the  people,  the 
conclusion  may  be  advanced  that  we  have  in  this  evidence  of  a 
conquering  and  ruling  aristocracy,  to  whose  initiative  and  ability 
was  due  the  relatively  rapid  growth,  on  the  firm  foundation  al- 
ready established,  of  that  remarkable  civilization  whose  achieve- 
ments are  still  a marvel  to  this  day.  Leaving  to  the  final  chap- 
ter a discussion  of  the  ultimate  source  of  this  new  racial  factor, 
it  will  be  enough  for  the  present  to  note  that  it  seems  to  have 
entered  the  Nile  valley  from  the  delta,  and  while  at  first  form- 
ing merely  the  backbone  of  the  ruling  caste,  as  the  centuries 
passed  it  contributed  more  and  more  to  the  mass  of  the  popu- 
lation, until,  by  the  end  of  the  Middle  Kingdom,  it  had  attained 
to  the  dominant  place  among  the  varied  racial  elements  in  the 
Egyptian  portion  of  the  Nile  valley,  and  retained  that  leader- 
ship in  Upper  Egypt  without  interruption  down  at  least  to  Ro- 
man times,  and  in  Lower  Egypt  to  the  present  day. 

Other  portions  of  the  continent  beside  the  Nile  valley,  how- 
ever, felt  the  stimulus  of  this  “New  Race.”  All  along  the  Medi- 
terranean coasts  in  Libya  and  westward  to  Gibraltar  the  new 
type  made  itself  strongly  felt,  but  nowhere  else  save  in  Egypt 
did  it  lead  to  the  development  of  any  notably  higher  culture. 
Nor  elsewhere  did  it  penetrate  far  inland;  indeed,  it  seems  to 
have  been  in  part  at  least  sea-borne,  for  beyond  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules  it  penetrated  to  the  Canary  Islands,  where,  overlaying 
the  older  Palaeolithic  population  of  Mongoloid  and  Proto- Austra- 
loid origin  (which  survived  most  strongly  in  the  outer  islands  of 
Hierro  and  Gomera),  it  blended  with  these  to  form  the  ancestors 
of  the  Guanches,  still  the  occupants  of  the  islands  when  in  the 
fifteenth  century  they  were  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  them- 
selves so  largely  of  this  same  Mediterranean  stock. 

Outside  of  this  fringe  along  the  northern  border  of  the  conti- 
nent and  along  the  lower  portions  of  the  narrow  valley  of  the 


188 


AFRICA 


Nile,  the  influence  of  the  Mediterranean  type  does  not  seem  to 
have  extended,  until  the  period  first  of  the  conquest,  and  later 
in  the  eleventh  century  of  the  great  invasion,  of  Mohammedan 
Arabs  took  place.  A part  at  least  of  these  new  invaders,  who 
followed  thus  in  the  footsteps  of  their  Neolithic  predecessors  of 
Caspian  type,  were,  as  will  be  shown,  the  result  of  a fusion  of 
the  old  Caspian  population  of  Arabia  and  Syria  with  the  Medi- 
terranean type,  so  that  in  their  conquest  of  most  of  the  Nile 
valley  and  the  Mediterranean  littoral,  and  later  by  their  com- 
mercial penetration  and  colonization  of  much  of  the  Sahara  and 
the  Sudan,  they  carried  far  into  the  heart  of  the  continent  an 
appreciable  factor  of  the  racial  elements  which  the  colonial  de- 
velopment of  modern  Africa  at  the  hands  of  the  European  powers 
has  in  recent  years  done  so  much  to  expand. 

One  last  racial  factor  which  has  played  its  part,  albeit  but  a 
minor  one,  must  not  be  overlooked,  viz. : the  Alpine  type.  When, 
shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  Dynastic  period,  the  Mediter- 
ranean peoples  made  their  first  appearance  in  force  in  Egypt,  the 
Alpine  type,  which  previously  had  been  absent,  or  present  in 
almost  negligible  proportions,  at  least  in  Upper  Egypt,  increased 
nearly  twofold.  Later  it  declined  again  until  the  period  of  the 
New  Empire,  when  it  once  more  assumed  importance  and  con- 
tinued to  be  a factor  of  significance  in  Roman  times.  It  is  in 
Lower  Egypt,  however,  that  its  influence  is  most  marked,  for 
here,  in  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Dynasties,  it  outweighs  even  the 
Mediterranean  itself.  If  we  turn  to  Nubia,  an  unexpected  state 
of  affairs  is  revealed,  in  that  in  Pre-Dynastic  and  early  Dynastic 
times  the  influence  of  the  Alpine  type  is  quite  evident,  and  is 
stronger  than  in  Upper  Egypt.  There  thus  seems  to  be  repeated 
in  the  case  of  the  Alpine  type  what  has  already  been  noted  in 
connection  with  the  Caspian,  i.  e.,  that  it  appears  in  this  early 
period  to  have  been  present  in  greater  strength  in  Nubia  and  in 
the  Delta  than  in  the  region  of  Upper  Egypt  in  between.  It 
was  suggested  in  the  former  case,  that  the  type  probably  came 
into  Africa  at  two  points,  Suez  and  at  the  southern  end  of  the 
Red  Sea.  It  seems  to  me  probable  that  the  same  may  be  said 


INTRODUCTION 


189 


of  the  strain  of  Alpine  type,  and  that  this  came  in  the  beginning 
associated  with  the  Caspian.  Later,  when  the  stream  of  the 
latter  had  dwindled  for  a time,  the  Alpine  current  increased  in 
volume,  so  that  in  the  period  of  the  Middle  Kingdom  it  nearly 
doubled  its  relative  importance  in  Nubia,  as  it  did  later  in  the 
New  Empire,  farther  down  the  Nile  in  Upper  Egypt.  While  in 
Egypt  the  type  increased  still  further  in  Roman  times,  it  did  not 
do  so  in  Nubia,  but,  after  its  rise  in  the  Middle  Kingdom,  re- 
turned to  the  small  proportions  it  showed  in  the  Pre-Dynastic 
period. 

The  Egyptian  and  Nubian  data  thus  suggest  that  at  least  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  the  metal  period  a thin  stream  of 
Alpine  blood  had  begun  to  trickle  into  the  Nile  valley,  making 
itself  felt  most  in  the  portions  of  the  valley  nearest  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.  Lack  of  data  for  the  early  period  along  the  lit- 
toral farther  west  makes  it  difficult  to  be  certain  as  to  the  condi- 
tions here,  but  from  the  evidence  it  would  appear  that  the  Alpine 
type  was  present,  even  as  early  as  late  Neolithic  times,  and  be- 
came of  large  importance  much  later  in  the  Roman  period. 
Whether  the  thin  fringe  of  Alpine  type,  which  extended  and  still 
extends  as  far  west  at  least  as  the  Gulf  of  Gabes,  is  to  be  regarded 
as  a western  extension  along  the  coast  from  the  Nile  delta,  or 
explained  as  sea-borne  by  pre-Phoenician  and  Phoenician  col- 
onists, is  hard  to  say.  The  fact,  however,  that  the  crania  from 
the  Siwah  Oasis,  lying  between  Tunis  and  the  Nile  delta,  which 
date  at  least  in  part  from  Ptolemaic  times,  show  but  slight 
traces  of  the  Alpine  type,  together  with  the  fact  that  this  type 
was  at  the  same  early  period  being  carried  by  sea  to  Sicily  and 
southern  Spain,  and  probably  along  the  western  coasts  of  France, 
seem  to  make  it  probable  that  all  along  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa  the  Alpine  factor  was  largely  sea-borne. 

In  the  modern  population  of  Africa  it  plays  a small  but  not 
wholly  insignificant  part.  In  Egypt  and  in  Nubia  it  is  repre- 
sented to-day  in  about  the  same  proportions  as  in  Roman  times 
(i.  e.,  io  to  15  per  cent).  Among  the  Hadendoa  of  the  eastern 
Nubian  desert  it  appears  in  much  greater  strength,  and  suggests 


190 


AFRICA 


a considerable  infusion  of  south  Arabian  peoples  in  comparatively 
recent  times,  since  they  have  a large  element  of  the  Alpine  type. 
The  Beni-Amer  show  a smaller  but  still  considerable  factor, 
which  then  fades  away  southward  through  Abyssinia  and  So- 
maliland, until  its  last  traces  appear  to  die  out  among  the  Masai, 
the  Swahili,  and  other  coastal  tribes  of  British  East  Africa, 
among  whom  contact  with  the  Arabs  of  Yemen,  the  Hadramaut, 
and  Oman  has  been  going  on  for  many  centuries.  Westward 
through  the  Sudan  traces  are  to  be  found  here  and  there  of 
Alpine  blood,  but  they  seem  to  be,  so  far  as  present  data  go, 
very  slight.  Yet  in  Dahomey  the  Alpine  factor  is  more  pro- 
nounced, and  further  material  may  show  its  unexpected  strength 
in  parts  of  the  Sudan. 

The  maps,  Plates  VII  to  X,  show,  so  far  as  the  data  are 
available,  the  distribution  among  the  living  population  of  the 
various  types  or  their  combinations. 

Our  survey  thus  seems  to  show  the  African  continent  as,  from 
the  earliest  times,  the  battle-ground  between  the  lighter  and 
darker  races.  Its  original  thin  stratum  of  Mongoloid  and  Proto- 
Australoid  types  was  very  early  overlaid  by  Proto-Negroid  and 
Pigmy  Palas- Alpine  peoples,  who  prevailed  over  the  older  popu- 
lation and  spread  virtually  over  the  whole  of  the  continent. 
But  already  by  the  Neolithic  period  this  essentially  Negroid  pop- 
ulation began  to  give  way  in  the  northeast  and  north  before  the 
irresistible  advance  of  the  three  great  lighter-skinned  groups,  the 
Caspian,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Alpine  types.  We  can 
trace  the  rising  of  this  flood  in  the  Nile  valley  from  Pre-Dynas- 
tic  down  to  Roman  times,  when  the  population  had  become 
dominantly  Mediterranean,  and  has  remained  essentially  un- 
changed to  the  present  day.  West  of  the  long,  fertile  ribbon  of 
the  Nile  the  same  process  was  repeated.  The  flood  of  Caspian 
peoples  swept  across  the  Nile  and  through  the  Saharan  oases,  as 
well  as  westward  along  the  coast,  where  they  joined  forces  with 
the  Mediterraneans,  and  drove  the  Negroids  from  the  whole 
north  of  the  continent.  Through  the  Sudan  and  south  along 
the  grasslands  of  the  eastern  plateaus  these  Caspian  peoples 


INTRODUCTION 


191 


penetrated,  influencing  the  mass  of  the  Negroid  peoples,  who, 
thus  leavened,  developed  the  higher  culture  of  the  eastern  Bantu 
and  the  comparative  civilization  of  the  Fula,  Mandingo,  and 
Hausa.  Thus  was  the  older,  more  pure  and  primitive  Negro 
culture  confined  more  and  more  to  the  dense  forest  regions, 
while  the  oldest  cultures  and  types  of  all  were  slowly  becoming 
extinguished  in  the  Strandloopers  of  the  extreme  south  and  in 
the  outermost  of  the  Canary  Islands.  Long,  long  after  the  first 
great  conquest  and  leavening  of  the  Dark  Continent  by  this 
Caspian  immigration  had  occurred,  a new  invasion  and  new  cul- 
tural influences  from  the  old  sources  came  again  into  Africa.  In 
the  military  and  commercial  expansion  of  the  people  of  Arabia 
consequent  upon  the  growth  of  Islam,  new  factors  of  the  old 
Caspian  type,  now  mingled  with  Mediterranean  and  Alpine  ele- 
ments, poured  into  the  continent  by  the  same  old  routes,  and  in 
the  Sudan  and  all  the  north  of  Africa,  as  also  by  sea  along  its 
eastern  shore,  further  augmented  the  white  as  opposed  to  the 
Negroid  elements.  And  now  again,  in  our  own  day,  the  phenom- 
enon is  being  repeated,  for,  coming  by  sea  to  the  south,  where 
climatic  conditions  are  favorable,  the  superior  civilization  of  the 
white  peoples  is,  in  South  Africa,  steadily  and  for  the  first  time 
from  this  direction,  pressing  the  Negroid  population  back  toward 
the  Equatorial  Forest,  just  as  the  remote  ancestors  of  these 
Negroids  did  the  true  Negroes  and  Pigmies  uncounted  thou- 
sands of  years  ago. 


CHAPTER  I 


NORTHERN  AFRICA 
I.  Egypt  and  Nubia 

For  no  portion  of  the  earth’s  surface  have  we  as  yet  such 
abundant  and  reliable  material  for  the  study  of  racial  history 
as  is  comprised  within  the  Nile  valley  from  Nubia  to  its  mouth. 
The  labors  of  the  archaeologists  have  supplied  us  with  a great 
number  of  crania,  the  bulk  of  which  can  be  quite  accurately 
dated,  and  it  is  possible  thus  (or  will  be  when  the  gaps  in  the 
published  data  are  filled)  to  trace  the  racial  history  of  the  Nile 
valley,  from  the  earliest  Pre-Dynastic  times  down  to  the  pres- 
ent, over  a period  of  something  like  7,000  years.1 

The  Early  Pre-Dynastic  occupants  of  Upper  Egypt,  among 
whom  as  yet  little  of  the  distinctive  features  of  Egyptian  culture 
had  developed,  seem  already  to  have  been  a mixed  people.  The 
major  factors  were  two,  the  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid, 
while  the  Caspian  type  is  present  in  almost  as  large  a proportion, 
so  that  in  reality  there  were  three  elements,  present  in  nearly 
equal  force.  It  may  be  noted  that  in  the  females  there  is  in  this 
early  period  a not  inconsiderable  element  of  the  Pake-Alpine 
type,  marked  often  by  rather  extreme  platyrrhiny.  The  Later 
Pre-Dynastic  period  shows  a notable  change,  in  that  the  propor- 
tion of  Proto-Negroid  type  present  decreases,  whereas  that  of 
the  Mediterranean  (before  present  only  as  a trace)  rises  sharply, 
so  as  to  be  almost  equal  to  the  Caspian. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  Dynastic  period  (somewhere  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  millennium  B.  C.)  we  find  the  Caspian 
equal  in  importance  with  the  Proto-Australoid,  while  the  Medi- 

1 For  ancient  Egypt  the  main  material  utilized  has  been  Thomson,  1905;  and  in 
addition  Biasuti,  1905;  Fawcett,  1901-02;  Fouquet,  1886;  Giuffrida-Ruggeri,  1909-10, 
Oetteking,  1909;  P.  M.  For  Nubia  the  main  sources  are  the  Arduzological  Survey 
of  Nubia,  especially  volume  II. 


192 


NORTHERN  AFRICA 


193 


terranean,  which  at  the  end  of  the  Pre-Dynastic  period  for  a 
time  assumed  significance,  now  drops  back  to  the  inconspicuous 
place  it  held  at  first.  In  the  series  of  crania  from  the  Royal 
Tombs  of  the  I and  II  Dynasties,  however,  the  conditions  are 
different  from  those  found  for  the  common  people.  For  in  this 
case  the  Mediterranean  type  drives  the  Caspian  from  second 
place,  the  Proto-Negroid  sinks  to  relative  insignificance,  and  a 
new  factor,  the  Alpine  type,  appears. 

The  question  whether  the  appearance  of  a “New  Race” 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  Dynastic  period  has  long  been  a 
matter  of  discussion.  On  the  basis  of  the  present  method  of 
analysis  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  end  of  the  Pre- 
Dynastic  and  the  beginning  of  the  Dynastic  period  was  marked 
by  the  appearance  in  Upper  Egypt  of  two  new  types  of  people,  of 
which  the  more  important  were  the  Mediterraneans,  the  Alpines 
being  in  distinctly  smaller  numbers.  There  is  also  for  the  time 
being  an  increase  in  the  Caspian  type,  and  a marked  decrease  in 
the  Proto-Negroid  element.  It  is  difficult,  in  view  of  these  facts, 
to  avoid  the  conclusion  that  the  period  was  one  of  profound 
changes  in  the  racial  constitution  of  the  people,  and  one  in  which, 
apart  from  any  mass  immigration,  a ruling  dynasty  and  aristoc- 
racy came  into  power  who  were  of  radically  different  character, 
and  in  particular  far  less  Negroid  than  the  mass  of  the  older 
population.  The  sources  of  this  Mediterranean  factor  are  not 
yet  by  any  means  clear.  Since  it  was  already  abundant  in  the 
southwest  of  Europe,  it  may  have  crossed  from  Spain  or  perhaps 
from  Italy,  and  journeyed  eastward  along  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa  to  the  Nile  delta,  and  so  on  up  the  river;  it  may  have 
come  from  northern  Arabia  across  through  Suez,  for  later,  at 
least,  the  type  was  and  still  is  strongly  marked  among  the 
Bedouin;  or,  lastly,  it  may  have  come  in  the  main  by  sea  from 
Crete  itself  (whose  earliest  population  was  in  very  large  part,  if 
not  wholly,  Mediterranean)  or  from  the  source  whence  the 
Cretans  themselves  had  first  come.  In  view  of  the  indications 
of  some  sort  of  maritime  connection  between  the  people  of  the 
Nile  delta  and  Crete  in  the  early  Dynastic  period,  the  latter  ex- 


194 


AFRICA 


planation  is  tempting,  and  seems  to  me  in  spite  of  many  obvious 
difficulties  to  be  the  most  probable. 

That  the  Mediterranean  element  must  have  reached  Upper 
Egypt  from  the  Delta  and  Lower  Egypt  is  almost  certain,  from 
the  still  greater  prevalence  of  the  type  in  the  north.  We  have 
no  Pre-Dynastic  crania  as  yet  from  Lower  Egypt,  and  data  from 
the  early  dynasties  are  very  scarce.  Yet  what  little  we  have 
seems  to  show  that  not  only  was  there  a large  Mediterranean 
element  there,  but  also  that  the  population  was  very  mixed,  since 
the  crania  of  the  I-IV  Dynasties  from  the  Gizeh  Pyramid  are 
primarily  dolichocephalic,  whereas  those  of  the  same  period 
from  that  of  Farashur  are  brachy cephalic  and  mainly  Alpine.1 
The  Mediterraneans  cannot  have  come  into  Upper  Egypt  from 
Nubia  and  the  south,  for  we  find  no  trace  of  them  there,  either 
in  Pre-Dynastic  or  early  Dynastic  times. 

It  is  difficult  to  harmonize  this  evidence  of  the  northern 
origin  of  the  Mediterranean  element  and  its  strength  in  the 
crania  from  the  Royal  Tombs  of  the  I— II  Dynasties  with  the 
historical  fact  that  these  were  in  origin  southern,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Old  Kingdom  the  result  of  a conquest  of  the 
north  by  the  south.  I can  only  suggest  as  a possible  explana- 
tion of  the  puzzle  that  the  Mediterraneans  settling  in  Lower 
Egypt  mixed  there  with  the  older  resident  Caspian  peoples,  and 
toward  the  end  of  the  Pre-Dynastic  period  spread  southward, 
bringing  with  them,  as  the  archaeological  evidence  shows,  the 
use  of  copper.  Later  some  of  these  immigrants,  who  had  been 
for  generations  in  Upper  Egypt,  may  have  attained  the  leader- 
ship, and  then  from  the  south  embarked  upon  the  conquest  of 
the  lower  valley,  and  so  founded  the  Old  Kingdom. 

For  the  later  part  of  the  Old  Kingdom  our  data  are  unfor- 
tunately very  scanty  for  Upper  Egypt,  although  this  is  to  some 
extent  compensated  for  by  fairly  abundant  data  for  Lower  Egypt. 
So  far  as  can  be  seen,  however,  the  Mediterraneans  steadily  in- 
creased to  the  end  of  the  Old  Kingdom  in  Upper  Egypt,  as  did 
also  the  round-headed  Alpine  and  Palae- Alpine  elements,  of  which 

1 Biasuti,  1905. 


NORTHERN  AFRICA 


195 


in  Pre-Dynastic  times  there  was  hardly  a trace.  The  source  of 
these  brachycephalic  types  becomes  clear  when  we  examine  the 
crania  of  the  IV  and  V Dynasties  from  Lower  Egypt,  for  here  the 
racial  composition  was  very  different.  The  Caspian  type  leads 
all  others,  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  types  make  up  nearly  a third 
of  the  total  (in  one  series  almost  half),  and  the  Proto-Negroid 
factors  sink  into  insignificance.  The  great  strength  of  the  brachy- 
cephalic types  is  particularly  marked  in  the  female  crania,  and 
they  may  be  recognized  in  some  of  the  sculptured  representa- 
tions of  the  aristocracy  of  the  period.  Whether  these  factors 
came  into  Lower  Egypt  through  Suez,  from  the  Syrian  and  Pal- 
estinian highlands  and  Asia  Minor,  or  whether  they  came  by 
sea  is  not  certain.  Alpine  influences  were  being  water-borne, 
however,  at  this  period  widely  throughout  the  Mediterranean 
and  along  the  western  shores  of  Europe,  and  in  particular  were 
beginning  to  reach  Cyprus  and  Crete,  so  that  we  may  doubtless 
look  to  such  a source  for  at  least  part  of  these  new  immigrants. 
Yet  in  Upper  Egypt  we  have  another  direction  in  which  to  look, 
i.  e.,  southward,  for  in  Nubia  at  this  period  a considerable  Alpine 
factor  was  present,  having  come  in  probably  from  southern 
Arabia.  Since  in  Nubia,  in  the  period  of  the  Old  Kingdom,  the 
Caspian  type  was  in  the  majority,  there  was  an  interesting 
parallel  between  it  and  Lower  Egypt,  since  in  both  the  Caspian 
type  was  dominant,  and  in  both  the  Alpine  element  was  large, 
while  the  Proto-Negroid  was  less  than  in  Upper  Egypt.  That 
the  latter  type  should  be  weak  in  Lower  Egypt  is  not  surprising, 
but  that  it  should  also  be  feebly  represented  in  Nubia,  while  rela- 
tively strong  in  the  region  of  Upper  Egypt  lying  between  the 
two,  is  extremely  curious. 

The  early  historic  period  in  the  Nile  valley  thus  seems  to 
have  been  one  in  which,  coincident  with  rapid  cultural  develop- 
ment, the  population  received  large  increments  of  Mediterranean 
and  Alpine  types,  the  former  coming  to  Lower  Egypt  first  and 
gradually  working  up  the  river;  the  latter  type  coming  both  into 
Lower  Egypt  and  Nubia  and  spreading  up  as  well  as  down  the 
stream. 


196 


AFRICA 


For  the  period  of  the  Middle  Kingdom  in  Upper  Egypt  we 
have  one  series  of  crania  dating  from  the  VI  to  the  XII  Dy- 
nasties, and  another  from  the  XII  to  the  XV  Dynasties,  carrying 
us  thus  into  the  times  of  the  Hyksos  conquest.  The  first  series  is 
remarkable  as  showing  a large  increase  in  the  Proto-Negroid  ele- 
ment, marked  in  the  male  and  female  crania  alike,  the  Mediter- 
ranean factor  and  the  brachycephalic  elements  remaining  about 
the  same  as  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Old  Kingdom.  The  second 
series,  which  includes  the  period  of  renaissance  in  the  XII  and 
XIII  Dynasties,  shows  a remarkable  change,  since  now  the  Cas- 
pian type  forges  to  the  front,  the  Mediterranean  increases,  and 
the  Proto-Negroid,  which  had  been  so  prominent  during  the  pre- 
ceding period  of  confusion  and  disunion  in  Egypt,  is  relegated  to 
third  or  fourth  place. 

Of  the  Hyksos  we  have  as  yet  no  certain  remains,  although  it 
is  probable  that  they  were,  like  the  later  Bedouin  of  northern 
Arabia  and  Syria,  mainly  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types. 
How  far  they  may  have  influenced  the  character  of  the  Egyptian 
population  during  the  period  of  their  rule  we  cannot  yet  say,  but 
with  their  expulsion  and  the  opening  of  the  New  Empire  very 
significant  changes  had  occurred.  The  crania  of  the  XVIII 
Dynasty  from  Upper  Egypt  reveal  a population  in  which  for  the 
first  time  the  Mediterranean  type  is  dominant,  and  the  impor- 
tance of  this  element  reaches  even  as  far  as  Nubia,  where  it  vies 
with  the  Caspian  and  Pro  to- Australoid  types.  For  Lower  Egypt 
we  have  no  data,  unfortunately,  for  this  or  the  preceding  period 
of  the  Middle  Kingdom.  The  Proto-Negroid  type  during  this 
period  of  magnificent  renaissance  is,  in  Nubia  as  well  as  in  upper 
Egypt,  of  very  slight  importance. 

For  the  succeeding  periods  the  data  at  present  available  are 
confined  to  the  XXX  Dynasty,  the  Ptolemaic  period,  and  the 
time  of  Roman  rule.  In  general  the  characteristics  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Upper  Egypt  seem  to  have  been  fixed  by  the  XVIII 
Dynasty,  for  the  Mediterranean  type  which  then  attained  first 
place  holds  this  with  only  a slight  set-back  in  Ptolemaic  times. 
The  Proto-Negroid  element  relegated  to  insignificance  in  the  New 


NORTHERN  AFRICA 


197 


Empire  makes  one  last  rise  in  the  XXX  Dynasty,  and  then  de- 
clines again  to  the  relative  insignificance  from  which  it  has  never 
since  emerged.  The  Alpine  and  Palas-Alpine  types,  however, 
slowly  increase  in  importance,  although  never  attaining  appar- 
ently the  importance  they  had  in  Lower  Egypt  in  the  period  of 
the  Old  Kingdom.  At  particular  sites,  however,  the  Alpine  type 
becomes  very  prominent,  as  for  example  in  Nubia,  where  the 
graves  of  the  priestly  families  at  Philae  and  the  Biga  cemetery 
show  a very  large  element  of  this,  for  Egypt,  foreign  type.1 

The  racial  history  thus  of  Upper  Egypt  falls  easily  into 
oiree  great  periods.  During  the  first,  which  includes  the  larger 
part  of  the  Pre-Dynastic  period,  the  population  was  primarily  a 
blend  of  Proto- Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types,  together  with 
a strong  factor  of  the  Caspian,  which  latter  was  apparently  dom- 
inant both  in  Nubia  to  the  south  and  in  Lower  Egypt  to  the 
north.  The  second  period,  which  includes  both  the  Old  and 
Middle  Kingdoms,  from  about  3500  to  1800  B.  C.,  was  marked 
by  the  striking  rise  in  importance  of  the  Mediterranean  type  and 
the  decline  of  the  Caspian,  which  still,  however,  held  its  position 
both  in  the  north  and  south.  In  the  third  period,  extending 
from  the  beginning  of  the  New  Empire  down  to  Roman  times, 
the  Mediterraneans  become  supreme,  and  the  Alpine  type,  for- 
merly but  feebly  represented  in  Upper  Egypt,  although  strong 
in  Nubia  and  especially  in  Lower  Egypt,  becomes  a factor  of 
considerable  importance. 

For  the  modern  population2  of  Egypt,  of  which  an  excellent 
example  is  given  on  Plate  XI,  Fig.  1,  we  have  abundant  and 
excellent  material  on  the  living,  but  unfortunately  no  published 
cranial  data.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to  determine  definitely 
what  changes,  if  any,  have  taken  place  in  the  period  since  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  The  analysis  of  the  measure- 
ments on  the  living  gives,  however,  the  following  results.  To- 
day, as  in  Roman  times,  the  population  is  primarily  dolicho- 
cephalic, the  brachycephalic  elements  amounting  to  only  about 

1 Archeological  Survey  of  Nubia,  vol.  II. 

2 Chantre,  1904;  Craig,  1911-12;  Myers,  1905,  1906-08. 


198 


AFRICA 


io  to  15  per  cent.  Significant  differences  are,  however,  ob- 
servable in  the  types  present.  Above  Assiut  the  dominant  ele- 
ments among  the  Moslem  population  are  the  platyrrhine,  doli- 
chocephalic types  (Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- Australoid),  the 
leptorrhine  forms  (Mediterranean  and  Caspian)  ranking  second, 
with  the  Alpine  type  third.  Below  Assiut  and  throughout  the 
Fayum  and  the  Delta  (except  in  the  district  of  Menufia)  the 
importance  of  the  dolichocephalic  types  is  reversed,  the  Medi- 
terranean-Caspian  types  being  preponderant  with  the  Proto- 
Negroid  and  Proto-Australoid  secondary,  while  the  third  place  is 
held  by  the  Paige- Alpine.  The  Copts,  who  as  Christians  have 
intermarried  only  among  themselves  for  many  centuries,  are  very 
closely  similar  to  the  population  of  the  Fayum.  The  people  of 
Upper  Egypt  thus  form  a transition  to  the  Nubians,  of  whom 
an  illustration  is  given  on  Plate  XI,  Fig.  2. 

II.  Northern  Africa 

That  portion  of  the  African  continent  lying  west  of  the  Nile 
valley  and  north  of  a line  following  roughly  the  150  of  N.  Lat. 
and  comprising  the  whole  Sahara  region,  Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunis, 
and  Tripoli,  may  on  the  whole  be  treated  as  a single  anthropo- 
logical unit.  In  considering  the  racial  history  of  this  immense 
area,  we  may  most  conveniently  divide  it  into  two  portions,  one 
of  which  includes  the  Sahara,  the  other  comprising  all  the  rest. 

Beginning  with  the  latter  northern  and  coastal  region,  it  is 
to  be  noted  that,  despite  the  considerable  archaeological  investi- 
gations made  in  Algeria  and  Tunis  by  the  French,  little  data  of 
any  value  has  been  published  in  regard  to  the  crania  found. 
Bertholon  and  Chantre,1  in  their  great  monograph,  refer  to 
crania  of  probable  Neolithic  age,  but,  state  only  that  they  are 
primarily  dolichocephalic  and  belonged  to  peoples  of  markedly 
short  stature.  From  the  abundant  megalithic  remains  of  this 
whole  region  a considerable  number  of  crania  have  been  taken, 
but  no  complete  measurements  have  ever  been  published.2  All 

1 Bertholon  and  Chantre,  1912-13. 

2 The  measurements  of  the  famous  crania  from  the  dolmens  at  Roknia  have  been 
reprinted  by  Randall-Maciver,  1901. 


NORTHERN  AFRICA 


199 


that  can  be  gleaned  is  that  here  again  dolichocephalic  forms  are 
in  the  majority,  both  platyrrhine  and  leptorrhine  factors  being 
present,  the  latter  apparently  being  most  numerous,  and  indi- 
cating thus  either  the  Caspian  or  Mediterranean  types.  Some 
crania,  however,  of  Alpine  type  occur. 

The  earliest  historical  period  in  which  we  know  anything  of 
this  region  dates  from  the  Phoenician  colonization.  A very  con- 
siderable number  of  crania  have  been  excavated  from  the  ancient 
cemeteries1  in  the  vicinity  of  Carthage,  the  majority  of  which  are 
assigned  to  the  fourth  century  B.  C.  We  can  hardly  assume  that 
the  large  population  of  this  great  city  was  wholly  made  up  of 
Phoenicians;  it  must  have  been  a mixed  one  in  which  the  pure- 
blood  Phoenicians  were  in  the  minority  perhaps.  If  we  may 
assume  that,  on  the  whole,  the  males  would  represent  this  foreign 
colonial  element  somewhat  more  clearly  than  the  females,  who 
would  belong  in  larger  measure  to  the  native  population,  results 
of  some  interest  appear.  Analysis  of  the  data  shows  that  the 
dominant  factor  in  both  sexes  is  that  of  the  Mediterranean  type, 
but  that  this  is  somewhat  stronger  in  the  females.  The  male 
series  shows,  further,  strong  minorities  of  the  Proto-Australoid 
and  Palse-Alpine  types.  The  females,  on  the  other  hand,  have  a 
smaller  proportion  of  the  former  factor,  a considerable  Proto- 
Negroid  element,  and  show  clearly  the  presence  of  a small 
Mongoloid  factor  which  is  entirely  absent  among  the  males.  If 
the  above  assumptions  as  to  the  mixed  character  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian population  are  correct,  these  facts  would  seem  to  indicate 
that  the  Phoenician  colonists  were  largely  a blend  of  Proto- 
Australoid  and  Palse-Alpine  types,  whereas  the  native  North 
African  population  was  primarily  Mediterranean,  with  appre- 
ciable Proto-Negroid  and  Mongoloid  factors.  The  presence  of 
this  latter  type  is  of  much  interest  in  connection  with  the  data 
presently  to  be  discussed  relating  to  the  ancient  people  of  the 
Canary  Islands.  One  further  point  may  be  noted.  Chantre2  has 
attempted  to  separate  the  more  ancient  from  the  later  crania 

1 Bertholon,  1892;  Collignon,  1892;  Bertholon  and  Chantre,  1 91 2-1 3. 

2 Bertholon  and  Chantre,  op.  cit. 


200 


AFRICA 


from  the  Carthaginian  cemeteries,  and,  although  he  gives  only- 
averages,  the  figures  seem  to  indicate  that  the  older  male  crania 
showed  larger  proportions  of  the  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto- 
Negroid  types  than  the  later,  whereas  the  older  females  com- 
prised a larger  element  of  the  Mongoloid. 

The  dozen  or  so  crania  from  various  sites  in  Tunis,  dating 
from  Roman  and  early  Christian  times,1  are  so  few  that  conclu- 
sions drawn  from  them  can  only  be  tentative.  They  seem  to  in- 
dicate, however,  the  replacement  among  the  males  of  the  Palae- 
Alpine  by  the  Alpine,  and  the  presence  in  the  case  of  the  females 
of  an  even  stronger  element  of  the  Mongoloid  type  than  was 
present  in  the  Carthaginian  graves. 

For  the  modern  population,  although  abundant  observations 
have  been  made,2  few  individual  measurements  have  been  pub- 
lished. The  people  of  Algeria  and  Tunis  may  be  divided  into 
two  main  groups:  (i)  the  Berber-speaking  tribes,  who  are  in 
large  majority,  and  as  a sedentary  and  largely  agricultural  popu- 
lation are  found  in  greatest  purity  in  the  mountain  and  higher 
plateau  areas;  and  (2)  the  Arabs,  in  part  descendants  of  the 
Mohammedan  conquerors  and  immigrants  of  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  and  in  part  “Arabized”  Berbers,  who  are 
seminomadic  and  most  numerous  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Atlas  and  the  border  of  the  Sahara,  although  scattered  almost 
everywhere.  The  Berber  tribes  represent  the  dominant  popula- 
tion of  the  whole  region,  dating  back  to  prehistoric  times.  In 
general  a people  of  medium  or  moderately  tall  stature,  they  re- 
semble the  Spanish  or  Italians  in  skin  color,  and,  like  them,  are 
prevailingly  brunet  in  color  of  hair  and  eyes.  There  is,  however, 
a very  interesting  blond  element  present,  amounting  in  some 
places  to  as  much  as  10-12  per  cent.  In  head-form  there  is  con- 
siderable variation,  but  the  fundamental  type  seems  to  be  that 
which  is  purest  in  Algeria,  a well-marked  dolichocephalic,  leptor- 
rhine  type.  A good  example  of  the  Berber  type  is  given  on  Plate 
XI,  Fig.  3.  With  this  are  blended  minor  elements  of  platyrrhine 

1 Bertholon  and  Chantre,  op.  cit. 

2 Bertholon  and  Chantre,  op.  cit.-,  Randall- Maciver,  1901;  Lissauer,  1908. 


Fig.  2.  Nubian. 


Fig.  3.  Berber. 


Fig. 


Somali. 


PLATE  XI. 


Fig.  1.  Egyptian. 


NORTHERN  AERICA 


201 


form,  in  part  at  least  of  Proto-Negroid  type.  Brachy cephalic 
factors,  in  the  main  apparently  Alpine,  are  quite  strongly  repre- 
sented, and  in  the  two  groups  for  which  individual  measurements 
have  been  given,1  the  Kabyle  and  Chauia,  amount  to  something 
over  a fifth  of  the  total.  Along  the  coast  itself  the  proportion  is 
probably  still  larger,  especially  in  Tunis,  where  it  culminates  ap- 
parently in  the  island  of  Gerba. 

Nothing  has  been  said  so  far  in  regard  to  the  western  or 
Moroccan  area.  The  data  from  here  are  so  scanty  that  it  is  not 
possible  to  reach  any  conclusions  of  real  value.  A few  crania 
from  Mogador2  on  the  Atlantic  coast  appear  to  indicate  that 
the  fundamental  stratum  here  is  similar  to  that  farther  east- 
ward, although  most  observers  are  agreed  that  there  is  clearly 
a much  larger  Negroid  element  in  the  population. 

The  Canary  Islands,  lying  off  the  coast  just  beyond  the  south- 
ern limits  of  Morocco,  represent  the  most  isolated  and  marginal 
area  comprised  within  the  limits  of  Africa.  The  people  of  this 
group  have  long  attracted  scientific  interest  and  speculation. 
The  Guanche,  as  they  are  commonly  called  (although  this  term 
strictly  should  apply  only  to  the  inhabitants  of  Teneriffe),  are 
now  extinct,  but  abundant  cranial  data  in  regard  to  them  and 
the  ancient  occupants  of  the  other  islands  in  the  group  exist.3 
Analysis  of  the  material  shows  that  the  Mediterranean  type  was 
dominant  among  the  Guanche,  the  most  important  minor  factors 
present  being  the  Alpine  and  the  Mongoloid  types.  The  con- 
trast between  the  male  and  female  series  is  very  striking,  since 
in  the  latter  the  Mongoloid  element  is  actually  in  the  preponder- 
ance, the  minority  elements  being  Mediterranean  and  Proto- 
Negroid.  The  facts  suggest  that  the  Guanche  proper  were  an 
immigrant  folk  closely  related  to  the  Berber  peoples  of  North 
Africa,  the  people  whom  they  dispossessed  and  partly  absorbed 
being  a remnant  of  the  ancient  blend  between  the  very  early 

1 Randall-Maciver,  1901.  2 Vernau,  19x1. 

3 1 have  been  fortunate  in  being  able  to  utilize  the  very  large  mass  of  unpublished 
measurements  in  the  hands  of  Doctor  E.  A.  Hooton.  The  large  series  published  by 
von  Behr  are  useless  for  comparison,  since  his  nasal  measurements  do  not  conform 
to  standard  usage. 


202 


AFRICA 


Mongoloid  and  the  Proto-Negroid.  This  suggestion  seems  to  be 
confirmed  by  a comparison  of  the  Teneriffe  crania  with  those 
from  the  most  outlying  islands  of  the  group,  which  theoretically 
ought  to  have  preserved  the  largest  proportion  of  the  pre-Guanche 
population.  This  proves  actually  to  be  the  case,  for  in  Hierro 
and  Gomera  the  Mongoloid  type  is  present  in  larger  proportion 
than  in  Teneriffe.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Grand  Canary,  which 
lies  nearer  the  African  mainland,  the  proportion  of  Proto-Negroid 
factors  is  larger.  The  fact  that  in  this  extreme  outlying  mar- 
ginal portion  of  Africa  toward  the  west  there  survived,  until  his- 
toric times,  a fragment  of  the  ancient  Mongoloid  stratum,  is  the 
feature  of  greatest  interest  which  the  analysis  of  the  data  from 
the  Canary  Islands  reveals.  For  we  shall  see  that  in  no  other 
portion  of  the  continent  is  there  more  than  a trace  of  it,  except 
at  the  extreme  southern  tip. 

The  Sahara  and  Libyan  Deserts,  comprising  an  area  consider- 
ably larger  than  that  of  the  whole  United  States,  except  Alaska, 
has  in  general  a scanty  population.  Anthropologically  these 
people  are  very  little  known,  and  it  is  usually  assumed  that  they 
are  fundamentally  similar  to  the  main  mass  of  Berber  peoples 
farther  north,  modified  especially  toward  the  east  by  Arab  im- 
migration and  by  a considerable  but  variable  Negroid  element 
derived  from  Negro  slaves.  For  the  early  population  the  only 
data  we  possess  consists  of  a series  of  crania  from  Siwah  Oasis,1 
on  the  northern  border  of  the  Libyan  Desert,  most  of  which, 
without  much  question,  considerably  antedate  the  Arab  con- 
quest. These  show  these  people  to  have  been  primarily  of  the 
Mediterranean  type,  yet  with  large  minorities  of  the  Caspian 
and  Alpine  forms.  For  the  living  we  have  two  considerable  series 
of  measurements  from  the  eastern  and  southeastern  margin  of 
the  region.  One  of  these,  from  Charga  Oasis,2  represents  the  older, 
sedentary  population ; the  other,  from  the  Kababish,3  northwest  of 
Khartoum,  are  examples  of  the  later  Arab  nomads.  The  Charga 
series  is  virtually  identical  with  that  obtained  among  the  modern 


1 Puccioni,  1910,  but  especially  a series  of  eighty-five  in  P.  M. 

2 Hrdlicka,  1912.  3 Seligmann,  1913. 


NORTHERN  AFRICA 


203 


Egyptians  of  the  Thebaid1  in  being  a blend  of  broad  and  narrow 
nosed,  long-headed  peoples,  in  whom  the  chief  types  represented 
are  probably  the  Mediterranean,  Proto-Negroid,  and  Proto-Aus- 
traloid, with  some  little  factor  of  the  Alpine  type.  The  Kaba- 
bish,  on  the  other  hand,  show  quite  a different  character.  They 
resemble  more  the  early  Siwah  people  in  having  a large  majority 
of  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  types,  but  have  more  Proto- 
Negroid  and  less  Alpine  than  these.  They  are  in  most  ways 
very  closely  similar  to  the  Beni-Amer  of  the  Red  Sea  coast  in  the 
vicinity  of  Suakim,  from  which  direction  the  ancestors  of  the 
Kababish  most  probably  came. 

For  the  whole  of  the  rest  of  the  Sahara  area  no  individual 
series  of  measurements  have  been  given,  so  that  only  the  most 
general  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from  the  averages  published. 
The  dominant  type  is  undoubtedly  very  similar  to  the  Berber,  in 
being  largely  Mediterranean  and  Caspian.  The  Tuareg,2  who 
are  the  dominant  people  of  the  western  and  central  Sahara,  are 
the  best  known  representatives  of  this  type,  although  there  is 
among  the  lower  ranks  of  the  population  a considerable  amount 
of  Negroid  mixture.  The  Tuareg  are  further  distinguished  from 
the  Berber  tribes  toward  the  north  by  their  extremely  tall  stature, 
approximating  in  this  respect  the  gigantic  Nilotic  Negroes  and 
some  of  the  tribes  about  Lake  Chad.  In  the  Fezzan  and  perhaps 
in  other  oases  in  the  central  Sahara  there  appears  to  be  a con- 
siderable element  of  Palae-Alpine  type,  which  is  most  likely  de- 
rived from  brachy cephalic  Negroid  slaves  brought  from  the  region 
of  Lake  Chad.  Farther  west  and  north,  along  the  northern  bor- 
ders of  the  desert,  the  Negroid  element  is  dolichocephalic,  and 
derived  probably  from  slaves  coming  from  Senegal.  This  Negroid 
element  seems  to  increase  farther  west  still  in  Mauretania.  The 
Tibbu  or  Teda  of  the  Tibesti3  range,  in  the  heart  of  the  Sahara, 
appear  to  have  a large  element  of  this,  together  with  something 
of  the  brachycephalic  Negroid  factor,  and  may  represent  a rem- 
nant of  the  ancient  Negroid  population  which  has  been  assumed 
to  have  once  spread  throughout  the  Saharan  region. 

'Myers,  1905,  1906-08.  2Verneau,  1916-17;  Zeltner,  1914. 

* Bouilliez,  1913. 


204 


AFRICA 


III.  Northeastern  Africa 

The  peoples  of  northeastern  Africa,  including  the  whole  area 
of  the  “Horn,”  Abyssinia,  and  that  portion  of  Nubia  lying  east 
of  the  Nile  and  north  of  the  Atbara  River,  have  long  been  grouped 
together  as  “Hamitic.”  The  region  divides  itself  topographi- 
cally into  three  distinct  areas:  the  steppe-like  plateau  of  Somali- 
land, lying  at  an  elevation  of  about  3,000  feet;  the  sharply  de- 
fined, much  higher  and  partly  forested  plateau  of  Abyssinia, 
averaging  about  7,000  feet  and  surmounted  by  mountain  ranges 
and  peaks  rising  to  elevations  of  14,000  feet;  and  the  lowland  of 
the  Nubian  Desert.  The  inhabitants  of  the  whole  region  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups:  (1)  an  eastern  and  southern,  compris- 
ing the  Beni-Amer,1  Somali,2  Galla,3  and  the  Abyssinians  of  Shoa 
and  Gojam,4  together  with  the  Masai5  and  Njemps,5  formerly 
living  north  of  Lake  Rudolph;  and  (2)  a central,  including  the 
Abyssinians  of  Tigre4  and  the  region  about  Lake  Tanna.4  The 
first  group  virtually  surrounds  the  second  on  the  north,  east,  and 
south,  and  to  it  must  probably  be  added  the  Hadendoa,1  western 
neighbors  of  the  Beni-Amer,  who  are  more  or  less  intermediate 
in  racial  characteristics  between  the  two  groups. 

Analysis  of  the  measurements  made  on  the  living  gives  for 
the  first  group  the  following  results:  All  except  the  Hadendoa 
show  the  dominance  of  leptorrhine,  dolichocephalic  types,  rising 
in  the  case  of  Galla  to  nearly  70  per  cent,  and  very  strong  in  the 
Beni-Amer  and  Somali.  From  cranial  data  from  the  first  and 
last  of  these  tribes  we  know  that  the  major  factor  is  that  of  the 
Caspian  type,  although  in  the  Somali  there  is  a relatively  large 
element  of  the  Mediterranean  present.  The  secondary  factor  in 
all  these  tribes  is  of  platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  types,  these  being 
least  important  among  the  Somali  and  Beni-Amer,  but  increas- 
ing among  the  Abyssinians  of  Shoa  and  the  Njemps  to  nearly 
the  strength  of  the  dominant  elements.  The  actual  types  pres- 

1 Seligmann,  1913. 

2 Leys,  1913;  Puccioni,  1917;  Radlauer,  1914;  Paulitschke,  1888. 

3 Virchow,  1889  a,  1891;  Sergi,  1891 ; Verneau,  1909  b. 

4 Verneau,  1909  b;  Sergi,  S.,  1912.  6 Leys,  1913;  Virchow,  loc.  cit. 


NORTHERN  AFRICA 


205 


ent  appear  to  vary,  in  that  in  the  Somali  the  Proto-Negroid  is 
more  important,  in  the  Galla  this  and  the  Proto- Australoid  are 
present  in  equal  proportions,  while  in  the  Hadendoa  the  latter  is 
in  slight  excess.  A characteristic  example  of  the  Somali  is  given 
on  Plate  XI,  Fig.  4. 

The  minority  factors  are  of  considerable  significance.  The 
Hadendoa  and  Beni-Amer  are  sharply  differentiated  from  the 
other  peoples  in  that  they  have  a considerable  Alpine  factor 
which  the  others  lack.  We  may  therefore  regard  these  two  tribes 
as  having  received  a considerable  south  Arabian  element.  The 
remaining  tribes,  on  the  other  hand,  have  a small  platyrrhine, 
brachycephalic  factor,  which  certainly  in  the  Somali  and  prob- 
ably in  the  Masai  and  Njemps  is  of  the  Palae-Alpine  type.  In 
the  Abyssinians  of  Gojam,  however,  it  is  equally  clearly  Mongo- 
loid. The  Palae-Alpine  factor  is  probably  derived  from  slight 
mixtures  with  the  Central  African  Negroids;  the  Mongoloid  ele- 
ment has  more  far-reaching  significance.  This  type  is,  as  will  be 
seen  later,  strongly  represented  among  the  Bushmen,  and  it  has 
frequently  been  claimed  that  these  peculiar  people  once  extended 
much  farther  north  than  they  have  done  in  historic  times,  and 
traces  of  them  have  even  been  claimed  to  have  been  found  in 
early  Egypt.  It  has  been  shown  already  that  this  is  indeed  true, 
and  that  in  the  Pre-Dynastic  crania  from  the  Thebaid  this  type 
is  unquestionably  present,  especially  in  the  females,  albeit  in  but 
very  small  proportions.  Any  modern  survival  of  this  very  an- 
cient type  would  be  looked  for  in  marginal  areas  of  isolation,  and 
the  fortress-like  plateau  of  Abyssinia  is  the  one  spot  in  all  eastern 
Africa  in  which  such  traces  might  be  expected  to  be  found.  It 
is  very  significant  in  this  connection  that  in  the  series  of  crania 
from  the  Tigre  district,1  dating  from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  cen- 
tury A.  D.,  that  this  Mongoloid  type  is  present  in  notable  de- 
gree. It  thus  seems  probable  that  in  the  Abyssinian  plateau  we 
have  a third  region  (the  other  two  being  the  Canary  Islands  and 
the  extreme  southern  tip  of  the  continent)  in  which  traces  of  this 
type,  which  goes  back  to  early  Palaeolithic  times,  still  survive. 

1 Sergi,  S.,  1912, 


206 


AFRICA 


The  second  group  into  which  the  population  of  northeastern 
Africa  may  be  divided  can  be  more  briefly  dismissed.  It  includes 
the  Abyssinians  of  Tigre  and  Lake  Tanna,  and  shows  a strong 
contrast  to  the  first  and  more  numerous  group,  practically  re- 
versing the  proportions  there  found.  In  the  former  series  of 
tribes  the  leptorrhine,  dolichocephalic  types  were  dominant,  the 
platyrrhine  secondary;  here  the  latter  are  primary  and  the  former 
drop  to  second  place.  In  Tigre,  the  Proto-Australoid  type  is 
most  important,  as  among  the  neighboring  Hadendoa,  while  the 
secondary  factor  proves  to  have,  in  addition  to  the  Caspian,  a 
considerable  element  of  Mediterranean,  as  was  the  case  in  the 
first  group  among  the  Galla.  The  presence  of  this  type  so  far 
to  the  south  is  somewhat  unexpected,  but  some  light  may  be 
thrown  on  the  question  by  the  ancient  crania  from  Tigre,  above 
referred  to,  in  which  the  Mediterranean  type  is  dominant. 
These  may,  perhaps,  represent  an  immigrant  group  from  north 
Arabia  or  farther  north.  In  regard  to  the  minor  factors  in  this 
northern  Abyssinian  population,  it  is  clear  that  there  is,  as  in 
the  Beni-Amer  and  Hadendoa,  an  element  of  Alpine  type  and 
also  a trace  of  the  Palae-Alpine. 

The  so-called  “Hamitic”  peoples  of  Northeast  Africa  seem 
thus  to  be  primarily  of  the  Caspian  type.  In  the  north,  east, 
and  south  this  is  the  majority  factor,  attaining  its  greatest 
strength  in  the  southeast.  Throughout  it  is,  however,  blended 
with  a considerable  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto-Australoid  ele- 
ment, which,  in  the  west  and  north,  along  the  borders  of  the 
great  wedge  of  Nilotic  Negroid  peoples  occupying  the  Egyptian 
Sudan,  equals  or  even  exceeds  the  underlying  original  type.  In 
the  northern  half  of  the  area  an  immigrant  Alpine  element  makes 
its  appearance,  derived  probably  from  the  Arabs  of  southern 
Arabia.  The  bearing  of  this  modern  situation  on  the  problems 
of  the  early  population  of  Nubia  and  Upper  Egypt,  now  becomes 
plain.  The  Egyptian  and  especially  the  Nubian  people  of  Pre- 
Dynastic  times  comprised  a large  factor  of  the  Caspian  type. 
In  Nubia  it  was  the  dominant  element,  as  it  is  to-day  among  the 
tribes  of  the  first  group  into  which  the  people  of  Northeast  Africa 


NORTHERN  AFRICA 


207 


were  divided;  farther  down  the  Nile  in  Upper  Egypt  it  was  less 
strongly  represented.  In  both  areas  it  decreased  in  relative  im- 
portance from  Pre-Dynastic  down  to  Roman  times,  its  impor- 
tance in  the  more  southerly  region  of  Nubia  being  throughout 
this  whole  period  always  about  three  times  as  great  as  in  the 
Thebaid.  To-day  Nubia  and  the  “Horn”  of  Africa  are  still  the 
stronghold  of  this  Caspian  type.  We  are  justified  therefore,  I 
believe,  in  regarding  the  Caspian  factor  in  Upper  Egypt  as  hav- 
ing come  down  the  Nile  valley  from  this  great  reservoir  of  the 
type,  following  along  the  Red  Sea  coast  of  what  is  now  Eritrea, 
the  Land  of  Punt  as  it  was  known  to  the  Egyptians,  to  Nubia. 
The  source  of  these  Caspian  peoples  lies  across  the  Red  Sea  in 
Arabia.  At  first  sight  a serious  objection  would  seem  to  lie  in 
the  way  of  this  statement,  in  that  the  population  of  southern 
Arabia  is  primarily  Alpine  to-day.  It  will  be  shown,  however,  in 
dealing  with  the  racial  history  of  Arabia,  that  we  have  reason 
to  believe  that  the  earliest  population  here  was  of  the  Caspian 
type,  and  that  this  Alpine  element  has  come  into  southern  Arabia 
relatively  late,  at  any  rate  after  the  Neolithic  period,  which  is 
that  when  the  main  body  of  Caspian  peoples  came  into  North- 
east Africa.  It  is,  indeed,  quite  possible  that  the  movement  of 
these  people  into  Africa  may  have  been  in  part  due  to  pressure 
by  the  Alpine  peoples  who  were  spreading  into  Arabia  along  its 
southern  coast,  and  some  influence  from  whom  was  indeed 
brought  into  Africa  by  the  Caspian  immigrants  themselves. 
The  very  much  larger  element  of  Alpine  type  found  among  the 
modern  Hadendoa  and  Beni-Amer,  represents,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  effects  of  a relatively  recent,  late  historic  movement  from 
the  same  south  Arabian  region,  when  its  population  had  become 
pretty  strongly  Alpine. 


CHAPTER  II 


EAST  AND  SOUTH  AFRICA 

The  highlands  of  Abyssinia  and  the  “Horn”  of  Africa  are 
continued  southward  along  the  eastern  border  of  the  continent 
by  a broad  belt  of  uplands  lying  from  three  to  five  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea.  Its  western  edge  is  roughly  marked  in  the  north 
by  the  Great  Rift  Valley,  in  which  lie  the  remarkable  series  of 
lakes,  beginning  in  the  north  with  Albert  Nyanza  and  continu- 
ing through  Tanganyika  to  Nyassa.  Toward  the  southern  end 
of  Tanganyika  the  western  limit  of  the  uplands  trends  more  and 
more  directly  west,  and  follows  more  or  less  closely  the  divide  be- 
tween the  Zambezi  and  Congo  basins  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  In 
the  northern  portion  this  upland  is  mainly  grassland  and  open 
forest,  but  south  of  the  20°  of  S.  Lat.  the  central  and  western 
portions  are  largely  dry  steppe  and  desert. 

The  population  of  this  great  area  is  divisible  into  three  well- 
marked  groups:  (1)  the  eastern  and  southern  Bantu-speaking 
Negroids,  who  at  the  present  time  occupy  all  but  the  southwest- 
ern corner  of  the  whole  region;  (2)  the  Hottentot,  formerly  much 
more  widely  distributed,  but  now  living  mainly  in  the  Orange 
River  Colony  and  the  southern  parts  of  what  was  formerly 
German  Southwest  Africa;  and  (3)  the  Bushmen,  once  spread 
probably  over  the  larger  part  of  British  South  Africa  as  far  north 
as  the  Zambezi  River,  but  driven  north  and  west  into  the  Kala- 
hari Desert  and  other  unfavorable  regions  by  the  advance  of  the 
Bantu  and  Hottentot. 

The  Bantu-speaking  Negroids  are  divided  into  a great  num- 
ber of  tribal  groups,  from  the  Baganda  and  Wanyamwezi  in  the 
north  around  Lake  Victoria,  to  the  Zulu  and  Kaffir  of  the  south, 
and  so  through  the  Betchuana  and  Barotse  to  the  Herrero  of 
former  German  Southwest  Africa.  Our  knowledge  of  the  physi- 

208 


EAST  AND  SOUTH  AFRICA 


209 


cal  characteristics  of  these  many  tribes  is  very  incomplete,  and 
we  have  cranial  data  only  for  a small  number. 

Beginning  with  the  cranial  data,1  which  cover  an  area  ex- 
tending from  the  Jagga  of  Mt.  Kilimandjaro  on  the  southern 
Uganda  border,  southward  to  the  Kaffir  and  west  to  the  Herrero, 
it  appears  that  there  are  noteworthy  differences  between  the 
various  tribes.  For,  although  all  are  overwhelmingly  dolicho- 
cephalic, and  show  from  75  to  100  per  cent  of  the  Proto-Negroid 
and  Proto-Australoid  types  combined,  two  groups  are  easily 
apparent,  one  comprising  the  Jagga,  Angoni,  Zulu,  and  Herrero, 
in  whom  the  former  type  is  in  the  majority,  the  other  all  the  rest 
(i.  e.,  Issansu,  Sanduwi,  Turn,  Burungi,  Lake  Nyassa  tribes, 
and  the  Kaffir),  in  whom  the  latter  type  is  predominant.  The 
former  group  is  thus  more  closely  related  to  the  true  Negroes, 
whom  we  shall  consider  in  a later  chapter.  A further  difference 
is  also  to  be  noted  in  the  proportions  of  the  Caspian  type  pres- 
ent. In  the  southernmost  tribes,  the  Zulu,  Kaffir,  and  Angoni, 
this  type  is  present  as  a mere  trace,  whereas  among  the  Issansu, 
Turn,  Sanduwi,  and  Burungi,  north  of  Lake  Nyassa,  the  pro- 
portion rises  above  10  per  cent.  It  will  presently  be  shown  that 
among  the  northern  Bantu  it  increases  still  more,  and  we  have 
thus  a fairly  regular  increase  in  the  proportion  of  this  type  from 
south  to  north.  The  region  of  Northeast  Africa  is  and  has  been 
since  the  earliest  times  a reservoir  of  the  Caspian  type,  and  we 
have  thus  good  reason  to  believe  that  it  has  penetrated  south- 
ward, its  influence  diminishing  almost  in  direct  proportion  to 
the  distance  from  the  source.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find  in  all  of 
these  Bantu  tribes  a minority  factor  of  the  Palas-Alpine  type,  which 
is,  on  the  contrary,  present  in  smaller  proportion  in  the  north 
and  increases  southward.  Since,  as  we  shall  see,  the  Bushmen 
have  a considerable  factor  of  this  type,  which  is  probably  of  the 
special  Pigmy  variety,  it  seems  likely  that  this  element  was  ab- 
sorbed from  the  pre-Bantu  population  in  the  south  by  the  ad- 
vancing Bantu  tribes,  those  in  the  lead  of  the  migratory  drift 
being  most  influenced. 

1Widemann,  1899;  Shrubsall,  1902;  Zeidler,  1914-15. 


210 


AFRICA 


In  stature  these  southern  Bantu  tribes  are  rather  above 
medium,  the  average  ranging  from  a little  below  to  a little  above 
170  cm.  In  skin  color  there  is  much  more  variation,  the  more 
southerly  tribes  being  often  brown  or  even  light  brown,  whereas 
those  farther  north  are  generally  darker,  some  being  nearly  as 
black  as  the  true  Negro.  The  hair  is  quite  uniformly  woolly. 

The  southern  Bantu  have  been  given  first  consideration  be- 
cause for  them  cranial  data  were  available;  we  may  now  turn  to 
the  northern  tribes,  for  whom  we  have  only  measurements  on  the 
living.1  Of  these  northern  tribes,  the  Baganda,  Wanyamwezi, 
and  Manyema,  in  Uganda  and  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Victoria, 
may  be  taken  as  examples.  They  are  a people  of  medium  or 
slightly  over  medium  stature,  the  average  ranging  in  general  be- 
tween 165  and  170  cm.  In  skin  color  there  is  here,  as  farther 
south,  wide  variation  in  individual  cases,  and  it  is  clearly  related 
to  differences  in  social  rank,  the  ruling  aristocracy  being  often 
of  a deep  golden  brown,  whereas  the  mass  of  the  common  people 
are  quite  dark,  some  individuals  being  fully  as  black  as  the 
blackest  Congo  or  Nilotic  Negro.  The  hair  is  invariably  black 
and  woolly.  A portrait  of  a member  of  the  Andarobo  tribe  is 
given  on  Plate  XII,  Fig.  1. 

Analysis  of  the  measurements  which  have  been  made  on 
these  tribes  shows  that,  just  as  among  the  southern  Bantu,  all 
have  a majority  of  the  platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  factors;  here, 
however,  the  proportion  of  these  is  in  no  case  as  large  as  in  the 
south.  The  whole  series  of  tribes  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups,  according  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  leptorrhine, 
dolichocephalic  and  the  platyrrhine,  brachycephalic  elements. 
The  Baganda  and  Kaseri  have  a much  larger  proportion  of  what 
is  almost  certainly  the  Caspian  type  than  the  others,  who  in  their 
turn  have  more  than  twice  as  large  a proportion  of  this  factor 
as  any  of  the  southern  Bantu.  The  greatest  intensity  thus  of 
the  Caspian  factor  lies  west  and  northwest  of  Lake  Victoria, 
and  decreases  toward  the  south  and  east.  If  we  take  into  con- 
sideration the  platyrrhine,  brachycephalic  factors  a new  group- 
1 Leys,  1913;  Johnston,  1902;  Virchow,  1893;  Roscoe,  1911. 


EAST  AND  SOUTH  AFRICA 


211 


ing  appears,  in  which  the  Akamba,  Sukuma,  and  Manyema 
tribes  are  contrasted  with  the  Baganda,  Akikuyu,  Kaseri,  Wan- 
yamwezi,  etc.,  the  former  group  having  a much  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  round-headed  elements  than  the  latter. 

The  presence  of  this  brachycephalic  factor,  which  is  in  all 
probability  the  Pigmy  variety  of  the  Palas-Alpine,  raises  some 
interesting  questions.  As  will  be  shown  later,  the  northern 
Bantu  peoples  seem  to  have  originated  from  the  blending  of  a 
southward-moving  group  of  Nilotic  Negroes  and  a westward- 
moving  branch  of  the  strongly  Caspian  peoples  of  the  northeast 
of  the  continent.  These  latter  could  hardly  have  been  the 
bringers  of  the  brachycephalic  factors,  so  that  we  must  either 
assume  a considerable  element  of  this  type  to  have  been  in  the 
area  prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  northern  and  eastern  immigrants, 
and  to  have  been  absorbed  by  them,  or  else  that  the  brachy- 
cephalic element  was  brought  by  the  northern  Negro  group,  or 
has  penetrated  inland  from  the  coast.  So  far,  however,  as  our 
knowledge  of  the  Nilotic  Negro  goes,  he  has  but  a very  slight 
brachycephalic  factor,  quite  inadequate  to  explain  the  very  con- 
siderable proportion  (amounting  in  the  Akamba  and  Manyema 
to  33  per  cent)  found  among  the  present  northern  Bantu  folk. 
The  second  possibility,  however,  seems  at  least  a partial  solu- 
tion. Further  evidence  in  favor  of  a pre-Bantu  brachycephalic 
people  in  this  region  is  supplied  by  the  actual  survival  of  Pigmy- 
like tribes  in  the  region  about  Mt.  Elgon,  northeast  of  Lake  Vic- 
toria, and  of  several  groups  of  true  Pigmy  brachycephals,  such 
as  the  Batwa,  north  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  and  the  Bambuto,  in 
the  Ituri  Forest  west  of  Ruwenzori,  along  the  western  borders 
of  the  plateau.  The  probability  that  a factor  of  this  short- 
statured,  primarily  brachycephalic  primitive  people  has  been 
absorbed  by  the  northern  Bantu  is  further  indicated,  perhaps, 
by  their  reduced  stature,  which  is  less  than  that  of  the  tall  Galla, 
Somali,  or  Masai,  from  whom  the  Caspian  factor  must  have 
come,  and  much  shorter  than  the  gigantic  Nilotic  Negro. 

That  some  brachycephalic  influence  may  also  have  worked 
inland  from  the  coast  is  evident  from  the  character  of  the  coastal 


212 


AFRICA 


tribes.  These  all  show,  in  contrast  with  the  majority  of  the 
plateau  peoples,  a higher  proportion  of  brachycephalic  factors. 
Unfortunately,  no  nasal  measurements  of  these  tribes  were  taken, 
so  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  this  represents  a platyr- 
rhine  or  leptorrhine  element.  Since,  however,  we  know  that 
the  whole  coast  region  has  had  more  or  less  intensive  contact 
with  the  strongly  Alpine  Arabs  of  southern  Arabia,  at  least  since 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  particularly  since  the 
tenth  century,  it  seems  most  probable  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  brachycephalic  factors  found  along  the  coast  are  Alpine  and 
derived  from  the  Arabs. 

Before  passing  to  the  discussion  of  the  Hottentot  and  Bush- 
men, it  is  necessary  to  speak  briefly  of  a small  group  of  non- 
Bantu  tribes  occupying  that  portion  of  northern  Uganda  extend- 
ing from  Lake  Rudolph  to  Albert  Nyanza  and  south  around  the 
eastern  side  of  Lake  Victoria.  These  tribes,1  including  the 
Njemps,  Masai,  Karamojo,  Turkana,  Suk,  Nandi,  and  Acholi, 
are  in  origin  Nilotic  Negroes,  mixed  with  more  or  less  of  the 
Caspian  type  than  is  the  case  among  the  northern  Bantu,  and 
speaking  Sudanic  languages.  The  Masai  and  Njemps  are  tall, 
with  average  stature  of  170  to  172  cm.  of  relatively  light  skin 
color  and  with  a large  proportion  of  Caspian  type,  which  actu- 
ally just  outweighs  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto-Australoid  fac- 
tors. They  are  thus  close  to  the  Abyssinians  of  Gojam.  The 
Masai  have  been  a very  virile  and  powerful  people,  and  from 
their  earlier  home  on  the  northern  edge  of  the  plateau,  east  of 
the  White  Nile,  have  raided  and  conquered  southward  far  be- 
yond Mt.  Kilimandjaro.  The  other  tribes  mentioned,  speaking 
languages  allied  to  those  of  the  Nilotic  Negroes,  appear  to  repre- 
sent an  older  movement  of  these,  who  received  a much  smaller 
Caspian  element  than  the  Masai  or  Njemps,  although  equal  in 
proportions  with  that  found  among  some  of  the  northern  Bantu, 
such  as  the  Baganda  and  Kaseri,  who,  it  may  be  remembered, 
had  a much  larger  factor  of  this  Caspian  type  than  any  of  the 
Other  Bantu  tribes.  The  Turkana  most  closely  resemble  the 

1 Leys,  1913. 


EAST  AND  SOUTH  AFRICA 


213 


Nilotic  Negroes,  such  as  the  Dinka,  and  among  them  are  often 
to  be  found  individuals  of  the  extremely  tall  stature  character- 
istic of  the  Nilotic  tribes.  The  Nandi  and  Suk,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  almost  as  large  an  element  of  the  Caspian  type  as 
the  Bantu  Baganda,  and  may  thus  be  regarded  as  racially  one 
with  the  Bantu  peoples,  although  linguistically  allied  to  the 
Nilotics.  The  Suk,  moreover,  have  a large  brachycephalic, 
platyrrhine  factor,  which  would  ally  them  in  this  respect  with 
the  Akamba  about  Mt.  Kenia,  and  suggests  that  they  belong  to 
an  older  migration,  which  had  largely  absorbed  the  surviving 
ancient  brachycephalic  Pigmy  remnants,  prior  to  the  period 
when  the  Masai  came  into  the  country. 

Summing  up  the  result  of  this  study  of  the  peoples  of  the 
East  African  plateau  region,  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  evidence 
that  the  early  population  probably  comprised  a large  element  of 
very  short-statured,  yellowish-red  colored,  strongly  prognathous 
Palae-Alpine  people,  whose  purest  representatives  survive  to-day 
in  the  Batwa  and  Bambuto  Pigmies,  along  the  western  margin 
of  the  plateau,  and  in  the  other  Pigmy  groups  of  the  Congo 
basin.  With  these  there  may  have  been  a trace  of  the  ancient 
Mongoloid  element,  also  short,  yellow-skinned,  but  not  pro- 
gnathic. From  the  lower-lying  area  of  the  Egyptian  Sudan  on 
the  northwest,  there  then  came  a great  thrust  of  Nilotic  peoples 
very  largely  of  Proto-Negroid  type,  while  from  the  east  came  a 
drift  of  peoples  comparable  with  the  modern  Galla  and  Somali, 
with  large  Caspian  elements.  The  older  stratum  of  brachy- 
cephalic peoples  was  partly  exterminated,  partly  absorbed,  and 
from  the  blending  of  these  varied  groups  the  Bantu-speaking 
peoples  were,  in  the  course  of  time,  evolved.  In  comparatively 
recent  times  further  migrations  from  these  same  two  sources  oc- 
curred, giving  rise  to  the  Masai  and  other  non-Bantu  tribes  of 
Uganda  and  British  East  Africa.  Along  the  coastal  lowlands, 
especially  since  the  tenth  century,  an  Alpine  element  has  been 
introduced  by  Arabs  from  Yemen,  the  Hadramaut,  and  Oman. 
Somewhere  about  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  century  the  Bantu 
peoples  about  Lake  Tanganyika  began  to  press  southward 


214 


AFRICA 


through  what  is  now  Rhodesia.  Here,  and  especially  south  of 
the  Zambezi,  they  encountered  the  Hottentot  and  Bushman 
tribes,  whom  they  in  large  part  evicted  from  the  better  lands, 
and  with  whom  in  some  degree  the  more  southern  Bantu  tribes 
mingled,  so  that  a slight  factor  of  the  Mongoloid  type,  derived 
from  these  older  peoples,  is  to  be  found  among  the  Zulu  and 
Kaffir  of  to-day. 

For  the  population  of  the  great  island  of  Madagascar,  lying 
some  250  miles  off  the  East  African  coast,  available  data  are 
very  scanty.  Speaking  a language  allied  to  those  of  Indonesia, 
the  people  are  apparently  divisible  into  several  groups  differing 
widely  from  each  other  in  physical  characteristics.  The  Hovas 
stand  at  one  extreme  of  the  series,  the  Sakalavas  at  the  other, 
with  the  so-called  Malagasy,  the  Betsileo  and  several  other  tribes 
intermediate.  The  Hova,  who  occupy  mainly  the  Imerina  Plateau 
in  the  interior  of  the  island,  seem  in  the  main  to  be  of  Palas-Alpine 
type  with  a small  admixture  of  Proto-Negroid  and  other  elements. 
They  were  immigrants  probably  within  the  last  eight  or  nine  cen- 
turies, and  with  their  short  stature,  yellowish-coppery  skin,  and 
straight  or  slightly  wavy  hair,  seem  comparable  with  the  older 
pre-Malay  peoples  of  Sumatra  and  Java.  The  Sakalavas  of  the 
East  coast,  on  the  other  hand,  are  of  medium  or  slightly  over 
medium  stature,  black-skinned,  frizzly-haired,  and  seem,  from 
the  scanty  measurements  available,  to  be  primarily  of  Proto- 
Negroid  type  with  some  admixture  of  the  Proto-Australoid.  In 
what  way  or  at  what  time  these  apparently  older  Negroid  peo- 
ples reached  Madagascar  is  still  unknown.  The  unskilfulness  of 
the  African  tribes  in  navigation  makes  it  unlikely  that  they  could 
have  reached  the  island  unaided,  and  there  are  some  grounds 
for  believing  that  the  Negroid  elements  may  have  been  brought 
by  some  earlier,  pre-Hova  Indonesian  immigrants,  although  how 
this  could  have  been  accomplished  is  still  a mystery. 

The  questions  of  the  origin  and  racial  relationship  of  the 
Hottentot1  and  the  Bushman2  have  long  been  under  discussion, 

1 Fetzer,  1914;  Shrubsall,  1897;  Deniker,  1889;  Macgregor  Memorial  Museum. 

•Shrubsall,  1897,  1907,  1911;  Virchow,  1886  b;  Werner,  1906;  Macgregor  Memo- 
rial Museum. 


EAST  AND  SOUTH  AFRICA 


215 


and  many  conflicting  theories  have  been  proposed.  The  whole 
problem  is  extremely  difficult,  owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the 
identification  of  most  of  the  cranial  material  published.  Crania 
which  one  investigator  regards  as  Hottentot  will  be  declared 
to  be  Bushman  by  another,  and  the  most  conflicting  results  are 
naturally  secured.  A further  complication  is  involved  in  the 
question  whether  or  not  the  so-called  Strandloopers,  who  were  a 
purely  coastal  group,  were  really  a different  people  from  the 
Bushmen.  They  became  extinct,  apparently,  during  the  earlier 
colonial  period,  but  some  cranial  material,  supposed  to  repre- 
sent them,  has  been  found  in  caves  along  the  southern  coast. 
Whether  or  not  they  were  a distinct  people,  the  crania  which 
are  called  “Strandlooper”  certainly  present  features  which  dif- 
ferentiate them  from  those  described  as  Bushman,  and  I shall 
accordingly,  in  attempting  to  unravel  the  complexities  of  racial 
relationship  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  continent,  divide  the 
material  into  the  three  groups  of  Hottentot,  Bushman,  and 
Strandlooper.  The  determination  of  the  areas  occupied  by  the 
Hottentot  and  Bushmen  is  by  no  means  an  easy  task.  In  gen- 
eral, however,  at  the  period  of  earliest  European  contact,  the 
Hottentot  occupied  the  western  border  regions  along  the  Atlan- 
tic coast,  whereas  the  Bushmen  were  scattered  rather  sparsely 
over  much  of  the  interior  and  south,  from  the  Kalahari  Desert 
to  the  Cape.  The  Bantu  tribes  occupied  the  larger  part  of  the 
east,  although  even  there  remnants  of  Bushmen  still  survived  in 
the  wilder  mountain  country. 

Data  on  the  living  Hottentot  and  Bushmen,  of  whom  ex- 
amples are  given  on  Plate  XII,  Figs.  2 and  3,  are  somewhat 
uncertain,  since  the  two  groups  of  people  have  mixed  so  much 
not  only  with  each  other  but  with  both  Bantu  Negroids  and 
Europeans,  that  the  isolation  of  really  pure-blooded  individuals 
is  rather  difficult.  The  average  stature  of  the  Hottentot  prob- 
ably varies  between  about  162  and  170  cm.,  while  individuals 
apparently  of  pure  blood  have  been  noted  who  were  still  taller. 
Their  stature  is  thus  essentially  comparable  to  that  of  the  south- 
ern Bantu.  The  Bushmen,  on  the  other  hand,  are  Pigmy-like, 


216 


AFRICA 


the  purest  groups  averaging  only  about  144  cm.  in  height,  with 
many  individuals  falling  below  140  cm.  They  thus  approach 
the  Pigmy  tribes  of  the  equatorial  forest.  In  skin  color  the 
two  peoples  are  much  more  alike,  the  Bushmen  being  of  a light- 
yellowish  brown,  in  which  the  yellow  tint  is  clearly  marked, 
while  the  Hottentots  are  but  slightly  darker.  Both  thus  stand  in 
the  sharpest  contrast  to  the  surrounding  Bantu  Negroids,  who 
are  in  general  extremely  dark,  if  not  black.  In  head-form  the 
Hottentot  are  apparently  quite  purely  dolichocephalic  and 
platyrrhine,  giving  evidence  of  little  more  brachycephalic  mix- 
ture than  we  find  among  the  southern  Bantu.  Both  peoples 
are  finally  characterized  by  the  well-known  steatopygia  of  their 
women,  i.  e.,  an  abnormal  development  of  fat  on  the  buttocks. 

The  discussion  of  the  relationship  of  these  peoples  to  each 
other  and  to  the  surrounding  tribes,  will  be  facilitated  by  pre- 
senting the  data  derived  from  an  analysis  of  the  available  mate- 
rial, in  the  form  of  a table  showing  roughly  the  percentage  of 
the  more  important  types  present. 


Type 

Strandlooper 

Bush- 

man 

Hottentot 

Kaffir 

Zulu 

Angoni 

Fem. 

Masc. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Masc. 

Masc. 

Masc. 

Masc. 

Palae-Alpine 

12% 

5% 

10% 

6% 

Mongoloid 

5°% 

46% 

29% 

32% 

5% 

9% 

5% 

8% 

Caspian 

8% 

4% 

9% 

4% 

5% 

2% 

Proto-Negroid.. . . 

17% 

12% 

34% 

41% 

3i% 

38% 

57% 

54% 

Proto-Australoid  . 

25% 

25% 

3i% 

27% 

49% 

45% 

18% 

29% 

Beginning  with  the  Hottentot,  it  is  clear  that  the  male  series 
reveals  them  as  a prevailingly  dolichocephalic  people,  in  whom 
the  Proto- Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types  comprise  the  ma- 
jority of  all  factors  present,  the  Caspian  and  Mongoloid  appear- 
ing as  little  more  than  traces.  The  male  Hottentot  thus  is  essen- 
tially similar  to  the  Bantu  Kaffir,  but  differs  from  the  Zulu  and 
Angoni  in  having  much  less  of  the  Proto-Negroid  type  and  none 
of  the  Palae-Alpine,  which  both  of  these  possess.  The  Hotten- 
tot females  are  strikingly  different  from  the  males.  They  have 
the  Proto-Negroid  dominant  in  contrast  to  the  Proto-Australoid 


Fig.  2.  Hottentot. 


Fig.  i.  Bantu,  (Andarobo.) 


Fig.  3.  Bushman. 


Fig.  4.  Mbute  Pigmy. 

PLATE  XII. 


EAST  AND  SOUTH  AFRICA 


217 


as  in  the  males,  and  reveal  a very  strong  Mongoloid  factor.  It 
is  upon  this  latter  which  I wish  to  lay  stress,  for  if,  as  is  rather 
generally  assumed,  the  women  preserve  more  clearly  than  the 
men  the  older  racial  characteristics,  we  have  here  an  indication 
of  the  blending  of  a Negroid  population  possessing  a large  Mon- 
goloid factor  with  one  essentially  comparable  to  the  Kaffir.  If 
we  now  compare  the  male  Hottentot  crania  with  the  Bushman, 
it  appears  that  the  latter  differ  mainly  in  having  a larger  Mongo- 
loid and  a smaller  Proto-Australoid  element,  i.  e.,  the  Bushman 
males  differ  from  the  Hottentot  males,  in  the  same  way  that  the 
Hottentot  females  do.  So  that  we  may  regard  the  male  Hotten- 
tot as  essentially  a blend  between  the  Bushman,  in  whom  the 
Proto-Australoid,  Proto-Negroid,  and  Mongoloid  types  are  nearly 
equally  mixed,  and  a Bantu  people  comparable  to  the  Kaffir,  in 
whom  the  latter  element  is  almost  absent. 

If  we  now  continue  the  comparison  and  contrast  the  Bush- 
man crania  with  the  males  of  the  Strandlooper,  it  at  once  ap- 
pears that  precisely  the  same  features  which  differentiate  the 
Bushman  from  the  Hottentot  mark  off  the  Strandlooper  from  the 
Bushman,  for  the  Strandlooper  has  more  Mongoloid  and  less 
Proto-Negroid  than  the  Bushman,  just  as  the  Bushman  has  as 
compared  with  the  Hottentot ! So  that  the  Bushman  may  be 
regarded  as  a Strandlooper,  in  whom  the  Mongoloid  has  been 
relatively  weakened,  by  the  addition  of  a considerable  Proto- 
Negroid  factor.  Lastly,  if  we  look  at  the  female  Strandlooper, 
we  find  that  in  them  the  Mongoloid  factor  is  still  further  strength- 
ened, and  that  the  Pake- Alpine  element  present  among  the  Strand- 
looper and  Bushman  males  entirely  disappears.  There  is  thus  a 
fairly  regular  sequence,  beginning  with  the  southern  Bantu  Kaf- 
fir, and  following  through  the  Hottentot  and  Bushman  to  the 
Strandlooper,  such  that  a logical  theory  of  the  racial  history  of 
the  whole  of  South  Africa  may  be  outlined  as  follows. 

The  oldest  population  is  represented  by  the  Strandlooper, 
who  at  a very  early  period,  perhaps  already  in  Palaeolithic  times, 
extended  widely  over  the  plateaus  of  the  southern  portion  of  the 
continent  and  reached  northward,  perhaps  as  far  as  the  region 


218 


AFRICA 


of  the  Great  Lakes.  Primarily  Mongoloid  in  type,  they  were 
blended  with  a considerable  Proto-Australoid  factor  and  a lesser 
element  of  the  Proto-Negroid  type.  Later  a southward  move- 
ment of  peoples,  mainly  of  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto-Australoid 
types,  who  had  absorbed  a small  proportion  of  Pigmy,  Palae- 
Alpine  folk,  took  place,  and,  passing  through  Rhodesia,  forced 
their  way  into  the  region  of  the  southern  plateaus.  Of  the  older 
Strandlooper  population  they  absorbed  a part,  driving  the  re- 
mainder to  the  coast,  where  they  survived  down  to  the  sixteenth 
century.  From  the  mingling  of  the  immigrants  and  the  Strand- 
loopers  the  Bushmen  developed,  and  these  occupied  all  of  the 
better  lands.  Again  a new  drift,  this  time  of  Bantu-like  peoples, 
forced  their  way  over  the  same  route  from  the  northward,  and 
established  themselves  in  the  region  south  of  the  Zambezi.  These 
folk,  who  were  pastoral,  cattle-keeping  people,  took  the  better 
lands,  driving  the  Bushmen  into  the  less  favorable  localities,  and 
in  time  absorbed  a certain  proportion  of  them,  and  thus  devel- 
oped the  Hottentot,  whose  language,  although  possessing  several 
clicks  taken  over  from  the  Bushmen,  nevertheless  shows  strong 
Hamitic  relationships.  Lastly,  probably  about  the  fourteenth  or 
fifteenth  century,  a last  thrust  of  Bantu  peoples  occurred,  bring- 
ing into  the  region  the  warlike  Zulu,  Kaffir,  etc.  Like  their  pred- 
ecessors, they  drove  the  earlier  occupants  from  much  of  the  bet- 
ter lands,  forcing  the  Hottentots  west  and  north  toward  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  the  Bushmen  into  the  Kalahari  and  other 
desert  sections.  Just  as  the  earlier  groups  of  invaders,  these  lat- 
est Bantu  conquerors  mingled  somewhat  with  the  older  peoples, 
so  that  when  their  progress  was  stopped  by  European  occupa- 
tion, they  had  already  absorbed  a small  Mongoloid  element, 
which  thus  differentiates  them  from  the  Bantu  tribes  farther 
north.  If  this  suggested  theory  is  correct,  the  Strandlooper, 
Bushman,  and  Hottentot  represent  three  successive  stages  in  the 
racial  history  of  this  part  of  Africa,  the  fourth  and  last  stage  of 
which  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  European  colonization.  That 
the  Hottentot  represented  a very  old  Bushman-Bantu  mixture 
has  been  often  suggested  by  others;  the  present  theory  carries 


EAST  AND  SOUTH  AFRICA 


219 


this  a step  farther,  and  derives  the  Bushmen  themselves  from 
the  still  older  Strandlooper  by  a similar  process. 

Two  obstacles  may  be  pointed  out  in  the  way  of  accepting  this 
theory,  the  presence  among  the  Strandlooper  of  a small  factor  of 
the  Caspian  type,  and  the  Hamitic  rather  than  Bantu  affiliation 
of  Hottentot  speech.  Were  the  Caspian  factor  smaller  and  also 
found  in  the  Bushmen,  it  might  be  explained  as  an  element 
brought  in  by  the  earliest  immigrants  from  the  northward;  its 
absence  among  the  Bushmen,  however,  and  its  greater  strength 
among  the  Hottentot  than  among  any  of  the  southern  Bantu  is 
certainly  puzzling.  The  Hamitic  relationship  of  the  Hottentot 
speech  would  be  intelligible  if  we  could  assume  that  the  Bantu- 
like  Negroids  who,  according  to  the  theory  here  suggested,  were 
the  ancestors  of  the  Hottentots,  had  been  Hamiticized  in  speech 
before  they  left  their  earlier  northern  home.  The  larger  Cas- 
pian element  which  the  Hottentot  possesses  as  compared  with 
the  southern  Bantu  might  possibly  be  held  to  point  in  this  direc- 
tion. There  are,  to  be  sure,  difficulties  in  the  way  of  this  assumed 
Hamitization,  but  most  writers  who  have  struggled  with  the 
Hottentot  problem  have  found  no  other  way  to  explain  the  rela- 
tionship except  by  bringing  the  Hottentot,  with  a Proto-Hamitic 
speech,  from  somewhere  farther  north. 

Much  light  might  be  thrown  on  the  intricate  problems  of  this 
portion  of  the  African  continent  by  crania  of  unquestionably  an- 
cient date.  Within  the  last  few  years  two  discoveries  have  been 
made  which,  although  the  exact  age  of  the  crania  is  still  uncer- 
tain, nevertheless  afford  evidence  of  great  value  and  interest. 
The  first  of  these  in  point  of  discovery  is  the  Boskop  skull,  found 
in  a laterite  deposit  in  the  Transvaal  in  1914.1  There  is  as  yet 
no  clew  as  to  the  age  of  the  find,  and  all  that  can  be  said  with 
certainty  is  that  the  skull  is  probably  very  old.  The  skull  is  un- 
fortunately fragmentary,  and  different  investigators  have  reached 
somewhat  different  results  in  estimating  its  measurements.  What 
seems  to  be  the  sounder  view  is  that  the  skull  is  mesocephalic 
and  chamaecephalic.  The  face  being  entirely  missing,  it  is  im- 

1 Haughton,  19x7;  Broom,  1918. 


220 


AFRICA 


possible  to  determine  the  character  of  the  nose.  If  this  were 
platyrrhine,  the  Boskop  skull  would  represent  a blend  between 
the  Proto-Australoid  and  Mongoloid  types,  precisely  the  form 
suggested  as  that  of  the  remote  ancestors  of  the  Strandlooper, 
and  still  surviving  among  them  at  the  time  when  they  became 
extinct.  In  1921  the  Broken  Hill  skull,1  which  has  aroused  so 
much  interest,  was  found  farther  to  the  north,  in  Rhodesia.  This 
is  fortunately  much  more  nearly  complete,  and,  although  its  age 
is  still  undetermined,  it  is  unquestionably  of  great  antiquity. 
Proto-Australoid  in  type,  it  furnishes  evidence  of  the  presence  in 
South  Africa,  at  a period  perhaps  synchronous  with  Palaeolithic 
man  in  Europe,  of  the  same  type  characteristic  of  the  earliest 
crania  there,  and  that  from  which,  by  blending  with  the  Mongo- 
loid, the  Boskop  skull,  like  the  Gibraltar  skull  at  the  opposite 
end  of  the  continent,  may  have  been  derived. 

1 Woodward,  1921. 


CHAPTER  HI 


CENTRAL  AND  WEST  AFRICA  AND  THE  SUDAN 
I.  Central  Africa 

Central  Africa,  which  is  here  understood  to  include,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  Congo  basin,  the  northern  portions  of  Angola  and 
most  of  the  western  part  of  the  French  Congo,  is,  except  along 
its  northern  border,  occupied  by  Bantu-speaking  Negroid  peoples. 
Topographically  it  forms  a vast  shallow  basin,  some  1,500  miles 
in  diameter,  of  which  the  eastern  and  southern  margins  are 
formed  by  the  eastern  and  southern  plateaus.  The  western 
margin,  through  which  the  Congo  River  breaks  its  way,  is  formed 
by  a narrow  northern  extension  of  the  southern  plateaus,  running 
parallel  to  the  Atlantic  coast  and  decreasing  in  altitude  as  it 
approaches  the  bend  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  On  the  north  the 
limits  of  the  basin  are  less  well-defined,  being  formed  by  the  low 
water-parting  between  the  Congo  and  the  streams  that  flow  into 
Lake  Chad  or  the  Nile.  In  the  south  and  southwest  there  are 
considerable  grassland  areas,  but  most  of  the  region  is  covered 
by  the  dense  equatorial  forest. 

Anthropologically  the  peoples  of  Central  Africa  are  less  well- 
known  than  those  of  the  eastern  uplands.  They  appear,  how- 
ever, to  be  divisible  into  two  groups,  the  first  of  which  includes 
those  tribes  in  whom  the  brachycephalic  factors  are  in  the  ma- 
jority, confined  mainly  to  the  dense  forest  area  within  50  north 
and  south  of  the  equator;  the  second  comprising  the  tribes  in 
whom  the  dolichocephalic  elements  are  predominant,  who  are 
found  chiefly  around  the  periphery  of  the  area,  and  in  places 
along  the  main  valley  of  the  Congo  or  those  of  some  of  its  larger 
tributaries.  The  first  group  includes  two  very  different  peoples, 
the  Pigmy  tribes  being  sharply  marked  off  from  all  the  others 
physically  as  well  as  culturally. 

m 


222 


AFRICA 


The  Pigmy  peoples1  are  still  very  imperfectly  known.  They 
live  generally  as  separate  tribal  groups,  surrounded  by  their  taller 
neighbors.  Of  very  primitive  culture,  depending  wholly  on  the 
hunt,  they  are  strongly  contrasted  with  the  agricultural  tribes  by 
whom  they  are  surrounded,  and  are  to  be  found  here  and  there 
throughout  the  area  within  50  north  or  south  of  the  equator,  from 
the  Great  Rift  Valley  to  the  Atlantic.  As  the  term  Pigmy  im- 
plies, they  are  of  very  short  stature,  averaging  perhaps  140  cm. 
for  the  full-grown  males,  with  individuals  ranging  as  low  as  133 
cm.,  while  one  Bambuto  Pigmy  woman  had  a stature  of  only 
128  cm.  (about  4 feet  2 inches).  They  are  further  distinguished 
from  their  Negroid  neighbors  by  having  a reddish-yellow  skin 
and  a somewhat  hairy  body.  The  head  hair  is,  like  that  of  all 
Negroid  peoples,  woolly.  Analysis  of  the  measurements  of  liv- 
ing Pigmies  from  various  parts  of  the  equatorial  forest,  shows  a 
predominance,  on  the  whole,  of  brachycephalic,  platyrrhine  fac- 
tors rising  as  high  in  some  cases  as  65  per  cent,  the  only  other 
element  present  being  the  platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  types, 
which  in  some  cases  are  dominant.  The  very  few  crania  which 
are  with  reasonable  certainty  Pigmy,  and  whose  measurements 
have  been  published  in  full,  indicate  that  we  have  to  deal  only 
with  two  types,  the  Palae-Alpine  and  the  Proto-Negroid.  To 
class  the  Central  African  Pigmy  as  essentially  Palae-Alpine,  thus 
bringing  him  into  the  same  group  with  one  of  the  fundamental 
types  in  Europe,  may  seem  preposterous.  There  is  no  question 
but  that  the  Pigmy,  if  in  reality  belonging  in  the  main  to  the 
Palae-Alpine  type,  forms  a very  special  subdivision  thereof,  dis- 
tinguished from  the  main  type  by  several  important  features. 
The  problem  of  the  relationship  of  these  Pigmy  Negroid  peoples 
to  the  Palae-Alpine  type  is  not  confined  to  Africa,  for  we  shall 
meet  it  again  in  the  Negrito  peoples  of  southeastern  Asia  and  of 
the  Pacific  region.  Detailed  discussion  of  the  whole  question 
must  be  deferred  to  the  final  chapter,  and  for  the  present  we 
may  only  state  that  the  Pigmy  group  may  be  in  general  con- 
sidered as  a very  divergent  section  of  the  Palae-Alpine  form. 

Johnston,  1902;  Kuhn,  1914;  von  Luschan,  1906;  Poutrin,  1910;  Verneau,  1896. 


CENTRAL  AND  WEST  AFRICA  AND  THE  SUDAN  223 


The  dolichocephalic  elements  usually  occurring  as  a minority 
among  the  Pigmies  might  be  attributed  to  the  result  of  mixture 
with  the  surrounding  Negroid  tribes,  yet  the  wide  difference  in 
stature  makes  the  assumption  difficult,  and  it  seems  probable 
that  the  source  of  this  long-headed  element  is  to  be  found  in  the 
remnants  of  a dolichocephalic  Pigmy  people,  whose  existence 
seems  to  have  been  pretty  well  established  by  Poutrin  and  Ver- 
neau.  Our  knowledge  of  these  is  extremely  limited,  and  the 
measurements  of  only  a single  skull  have  been  published  in  full, 
so  far  as  I am  aware,  so  that  determination  of  the  type  is  as  yet 
impossible.  If  we  might  regard  these  dolichocephalic  Pigmies 
as  essentially  Proto-Australoid,  the  shortness  of  stature  would 
cease  to  be  a disturbing  feature,  since  this  type  was,  in  the  Palae- 
olithic period  and  later,  often  very  short.  Unfortunately,  the 
single  skull  known  is  distinctly  Proto-Negroid.  This  would 
suggest  that,  just  as  in  the  case  of  the  Palae- Alpine  we  have  a 
special  Pigmy  variety  due  perhaps  to  some  environmental  in- 
fluences, so  there  may  be  a special  Pigmy  form  of  the  Proto- 
Negroid.  Until,  however,  more  abundant  data  are  available  on 
the  whole  Pigmy  group,  further  speculation  seems  useless.  All 
that  we  can  say  at  present  with  safety  is  that  the  Pigmy  peoples 
appear  to  be  in  the  main  related  to  the  Palas- Alpine  type;  that 
they  have  among  them  a remnant  of  a platyrrhine,  dolicho- 
cephalic group  of  unknown  relationship;  and  that,  as  a whole, 
they  are  to  be  regarded  as  a very  ancient  and  primitive  people, 
driven  back  into  the  dense  equatorial  forest  by  the  encroaching 
Negroid  groups,  who  have  undoubtedly  mingled  with  them  to 
some  extent.  An  example  of  the  Pigmy  type  is  shown  on  Plate 
XII,  Fig.  4- 

Turning  now  to  the  other  portion  of  the  population  of  this 
whole  area  among  whom  brachycephalic  factors  prevailed,1  it 
appears  that  this  includes  a number  of  tribes  covering  a consid- 
able  portion  of  the  central  and  northeastern  part  of  the  Congo 
basin,  such  as  the  Baluba,  Basongo,  and  Wangatta,  between  the 
Kasai  and  Lomami  Rivers,  the  Basoko  near  the  mouth  of  the 

'Jacques,  1894-95,  1897-98;  Virchow,  1886  d;  Wolf,  1886;  Mense,  1887. 


224 


AFRICA 


Aruimi,  and  certain  tribes  of  the  lower  Welle.  All  of  these,  and 
probably  others  for  whom  we  have  no  data,  are  of  moderately  tall 
stature,  ranging  from  168  cm.  in  the  Basoko  to  175  cm.  in  the 
Basongo,  and  are  usually  of  very  dark  or  black  skin  color,  al- 
though individuals  of  lighter  shade  occur.  In  head-form  all  of 
these  tribes  are  mesocephalic  and  show  on  analysis  a predomi- 
nance of  brachycephalic  factors  which  rises  in  some  cases  as 
high  as  70  per  cent.  Cranial  material1  shows  that  the  Palae- 
Alpine  type  is  in  the  majority,  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- 
Australoid  making  up  practically  all  of  the  remainder.  If  these 
tribes  be  compared  with  the  Bantu  of  the  plateau  region  toward 
the  east,  such  as  the  Baganda  or  Wanyamwezi,  they  are  found 
to  differ  primarily  in  their  large  Palae-Alpine  factor,  and  to  have 
but  a trace  of  the  Caspian  factor,  which  was  quite  strongly  marked 
among  the  plateau  tribes.  That  is  to  say,  we  may  regard  these 
Congo  tribes  as  northern  Bantu  who  have  been  mixed  with  a 
large  proportion  of  Palae-Alpine  peoples  and  are  without  the  Cas- 
pian element  present  in  the  area  east  of  the  Great  Rift  Valley. 
A portrait  of  a man  of  the  Bobai  tribe,  illustrating  the  brachy- 
cephalic type  of  Negro  is  given  on  Plate  XIII,  Fig.  1. 

Since  it  seems  probable  that  the  Pigmy  Palae-Alpine  type  was 
once  widely  spread  throughout  the  Congo  basin,  and  since  many 
of  the  Congo  tribes  have  dim  traditions  of  an  earlier  eastern 
home,  it  seems  most  likely  that  we  may  consider  them  to  be 
early  northern  Bantus,  who  have  moved  westward  into  the  Congo 
region,  where  they  have  appropriated  the  better  agricultural 
lands,  and  absorbed  much  of  the  older  brachycephalic  population. 
Here  again,  as  in  the  Pigmy  question,  the  difference  in  stature 
forms  a difficulty,  yet  nowhere  else  in  all  Africa  is  any  other 
source  for  this  factor  discernible  than  the  Pigmy,  and  we  have 
no  evidence  that  any  significant  immigration  of  peoples  of  Palae- 
Alpine  type  has  ever  taken  place  into  the  continent. 

Something  of  a confirmation  of  the  view  that  the  brachy- 
cephalic elements  in  certain  of  the  Congo  tribes  are  to  be  ex- 
plained by  absorption  of  ancient  Pigmy  Palae-Alpine  peoples,  is 

1 Bennington,  1911-12. 


CENTRAL  AND  WEST  AFRICA  AND  THE  SUDAN  225 


given  by  a study  of  the  remaining  or  dolichocephalic  tribes  of 
the  whole  region.1  They  are  distributed  both  around  the  periph- 
ery of  the  area  on  the  north,  east,  and  south,  and  also  along  the 
main  valley  of  the  Congo  River.  All  these  tribes  show  a large 
preponderance  of  dolichocephalic,  platyrrhine  factors,  and  a mi- 
nority of  brachycephalic,  platyrrhine  elements,  which  is  substan- 
tially comparable  to  that  found  among  the  northern  Bantu  on 
the  plateaus.  Only,  it  would  seem,  in  the  case  of  the  more  east- 
erly tribes  of  the  Congo  basin,  such  as  the  Manyema  and  Ba- 
songe,  and  perhaps  in  some  of  those  along  the  southern  borders, 
does  any  Caspian  element,  strong  in  some  of  the  northern  Bantu, 
appear.  An  example  of  this  dolichocephalic  Negro  type  is 
shown  in  the  portrait  of  a Tamoa  given  on  Plate  XIII,  Fig.  2. 

The  only  considerable  series  of  crania  from  this  group  comes, 
unfortunately,  from  the  extreme  western  margin,  from  the  Ga- 
boon2 in  the  French  Congo.  This  shows  a rather  considerable 
majority  of  platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  factors,  the  Proto- 
Negroid  alone  amounting  to  over  40  per  cent.  Apart  from  these, 
the  only  other  type  present,  except  as  a trace,  is  the  Palae- Alpine. 
If  we  compare  these  crania  with  those  for  the  Bantu  of  the  pla- 
teaus on  the  opposite  or  eastern  margin  of  the  Congo  basin,  it  is 
evident  that  the  Gaboon  tribes  differ  from  their  eastern  linguistic 
relatives  chiefly  in  the  larger  proportion  of  Palae-Alpine  factors 
and  smaller  amount  of  the  Proto-Australoid  present.  In  other 
words,  they  differ  from  the  eastern  Bantu  in  just  the  same  way 
that  the  other  but  brachycephalic  Congo  Negroids  do,  only  the 
differences  are  smaller.  The  Gaboon  tribes  thus  stand  inter- 
mediate between  the  Bantu  of  the  plateaus  and  the  predomi- 
nantly brachycephalic  Negroid  tribes  of  the  Congo. 

The  dolichocephalic  Negroids  of  the  Central  African  region 
would  thus  be  explained  as  a later  wave  of  Bantu-speaking  folk, 
who,  following  the  earlier,  which  mingled  extensively  with  the 
older  brachycephalic  Pigmy  peoples,  flowed  around  the  margins 
of  the  area,  or  passed  on  more  directly  down  the  Congo  to  the 

1 Jacques,  1894-95,  1897-98;  Mense,  1887;  Virchow,  1886  d;  Wolf,  1886. 

3 Bennington,  1911-12. 


226 


AFRICA 


Atlantic  coast.  In  the  Gaboon  they  found  an  already  mixed 
population  of  true  Negroes,  blended  somewhat  with  the  older 
Pigmy  peoples,  the  remnants  of  whom  still  survive  as  the  Ba- 
bongo,  Akoi,  and  Sangha  River  Pigmies.  With  this  strongly 
Negroid  group,  the  Bantu  immigrants  in  time  amalgamated, 
the  result  of  the  mixture  being  the  occupants  of  the  Gaboon 
to-day.  Finally,  probably  about  the  sixteenth  century,  a last 
immigration  took  place  into  the  region,  that  of  the  Fang,1  a 
fierce,  cannibalistic  people,  who  came  in  from  the  east  and  north- 
east, and  who  appear  to  be  true  Negroes,  with  a small  element 
of  the  Palae-Alpine  type  and  a trace  of  the  Caspian,  resembling 
thus  many  of  the  tribes  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  French 
Congo. 

II.  The  Sudan  and  the  Guinea  Coast 

The  term  Sudan  is  applied  in  general  to  a broad  belt  of 
country  lying  roughly  between  70  and  170  N.  Lat.,  and  extend- 
ing east  and  west  across  Africa  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  high- 
lands of  Abyssinia.  Limited  on  the  north  by  the  Sahara  and 
the  Nubian  deserts,  its  southern  border  is  formed  by  the  edge  of 
the  great  equatorial  forest.  It  is  in  the  main  an  area  of  grass- 
lands and  open  forest,  and  is  throughout  a relatively  featureless 
plateau,  lying  at  an  elevation  of  1,000  to  1,500  feet.  South  of 
its  western  portion,  and  lying  between  it  and  the  sea,  is  what 
may  be  collectively  called  the  Guinea  coast,  extending  from 
Portuguese  and  French  Guinea  in  the  west  to  Nigeria  and  Cam- 
eroon in  the  east.  In  the  main  heavily  forested,  it  is  in  the 
north  a low  plateau,  and  is  bordered  along  the  coast  by  a narrow 
lowland  and  lagoon  belt. 

Throughout  practically  the  whole  of  Africa  south  of  about 
50  N.  Lat.  the  languages  of  the  various  tribes  all  belong  to  the 
great  Bantu  group.  Only  along  the  northern  border  of  Uganda 
are  Hamitic  or  Negro  languages  spoken,  and  in  the  south  the 
semi-Hamitic  Hottentot  and  the  Bushman.  In  the  Sudan  and 
throughout  the  Guinea  coast  the  languages  belong  to  what  is 

1 Pittard,  1908;  Schenck,  1905. 


CENTRAL  AND  WEST  AFRICA  AND  THE  SUDAN  227 


now  generally  called  the  Sudanic  group,  characterized  by  ex- 
tremely primitive  characteristics  and  quite  unrelated  to  any  of 
the  other  languages  of  the  continent. 

Culturally  the  population  of  this  whole  region  falls  into  two 
sections,  one  of  which  includes  the  Fula,  Hausa,  Songhai,  Man- 
dingo,  and  other  tribes  of  the  Sudan  west  of  Lake  Chad;  the  other 
comprising  all  the  rest,  who  are  sometimes  known  as  “true  Ne- 
groes,” in  contrast  to  the  Bantu  Negroids  of  much  of  southern 
Africa.  The  first  group  have  been,  at  least  since  the  twelfth 
century,  notable  for  their  superior  culture  and  ability.  In  the 
western  Sudan  they  built  up  considerable  and  well-organized 
states,  or  else,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Fula,  made  themselves  the  rul- 
ing aristocracy  among  peoples  of  lower  culture  and  ability.  Mo- 
hammedanized  in  the  fourteenth  century,  or  perhaps  before,  they 
have  been  infused  with  considerable  Arabic  culture.  Curiously 
enough,  these  relatively  advanced  tribes  are,  from  the  physical 
point  of  view,  the  least  known,  very  few  measurements  on  the 
living  and  practically  no  cranial  data  having  been  published. 
We  are  reduced,  therefore,  to  the  use  of  a few  averages,  from 
which  nothing  satisfactory  can  be  derived. 

Leaving  this  least-known  group  of  peoples,  however,  for  the 
moment,  we  may  turn  to  the  consideration  of  the  second  group, 
which  comprises  the  bulk  of  the  population  of  the  whole  region. 
It  is  most  convenient  to  begin  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Su- 
dan, in  the  region  of  the  upper  Nile.  Beginning  some  300  miles 
above  Khartoum  and  extending  southward  well  into  the  great 
swampy  region  known  as  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  are  a series  of  peo- 
ples generally  grouped  together  under  the  term  Nilotic  Negroes. 
Of  the  more  important  of  these,  the  Dinka,1  Shilluk,2  and  Nuer,2 
we  possess  considerable  series  of  measurements.  Perhaps  the 
most  striking  feature  of  these  tribes  is  their  very  tall  stature, 
ranging  from  172  cm.  among  the  Dinka  to  177  cm.  among  the 
Shilluk,  or  even  higher,  according  to  some  authorities.  In  skin 


1 Seligmann,  1913;  Tucker,  1910;  Lombroso,  1896;  Mochi,  1905  a;  Waterston, 
1908,  Chantre,  1904. 

2 Seligmann,  1913;  Chantre,  1904. 


228 


AFRICA 


color  all  are  very  black,  and  most  are  markedly  prognathic.  The 
measurements  show  the  Shilluk,  Nuer,  and  Dinka  (naming  them 
in  order  from  north  to  south)  to  be  relatively  uniform  in  charac- 
ter. All  comprise  from  85  to  over  90  per  cent  of  platyrrhine, 
dolichocephalic  factors,  which,  if  the  few  Dinka  crania  known 
are  a fair  indication,  are  almost  wholly  of  the  Proto-Negroid 
type;  indeed,  these  Dinka  crania  show  a larger  proportion  of  this 
type  than  any  other  African  series  as  yet  published.  The  very 
small  minorities  are  of  platyrrhine,  brachycephalic  and  leptor- 
rhine,  dolichocephalic  elements,  and  are  in  all  probability  Palae- 
Alpine  and  Caspian.  The  southern  tribes  appear  to  have  a 
slightly  larger  proportion  of  these  than  the  northern.  The  Ni- 
lotic Negro  may  therefore  be  characterized  as  a very  tall,  very 
black  people,  with  typical  Negro  hair  and  marked  prognathism, 
and  probably  in  overwhelming  proportions  of  the  Proto-Negroid 
type.  The  portrait  of  a Dinka  given  on  Plate  XIII,  Fig.  3,  may 
be  taken  as  a good  example  of  the  Nilotic  Negroes. 

West  of  the  true  Nilotic  Negroes  and  occupying  the  major 
part  of  central  and  southern  Kordofan,  Darfur,  Dar-Fertit,  and 
the  southwestern  portion  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  district,  are  a 
series  of  tribes  of  more  mixed  character.1  They  fall  rather  clearly 
into  two  groups,  one  of  which,  including  the  Furawi  and  Bertawi 
in  Darfur  and  the  Bongawi  in  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  is  very  similar 
to  the  Dinka,  Nuer  and  Shilluk,  the  chief  difference  being  a 
considerably  shorter  stature  and  a large  proportion  of  brachy- 
cephalic, Palas-Alpine  factors,  these  being  more  pronounced  in 
the  Bongawi  in  the  south  than  among  the  Darfur  tribes.  The 
other  group,  which  comprises  the  Nuba,  Tagalawi,  Kurawi,  Fer- 
titawi,  and  Digawi,  is  marked  by  a much  larger  increase  in  the 
Palae- Alpine  element,  which  reaches  proportions  of  as  much  as  40 
per  cent.  In  the  case  of  the  Nuba,  there  is  also  an  increase  in 
the  Caspian  factor,  with  which  goes  a retention  of  tall  stature, 
which  in  the  other  tribes  drops  to  or  even  below  medium.  These 
facts  seem  best  accounted  for  by  the  theory  that  in  the  tribes  of 
this  group  (which  penetrates  the  Nilotic  tribes  like  a wedge  from 

1Seligmann,  1910,  1913;  Tucker,  1910, 


! 


Fig.  3.  Nilotic  Negro.  (Dinka.)  Fig.  4.  Mandingo. 

PLATE  XIII. 


CENTRAL  AND  WEST  AFRICA  AND  THE  SUDAN  229 


southwest  to  northeast)  we  have  peoples  of  mixed  Proto-Negroid 
and  pigmy  Palae-Alpine  types,  which  have  forced  their  way 
northeastward  from  the  region  between  the  Welle  River  and 
Lake  Chad.  In  general  these  tribes  resemble  in  their  character 
the  Bantu  tribes  of  Uganda  and  the  eastern  plateaus,  except  that 
they  have  much  less  of  the  Caspian  type  in  their  make-up. 

Turning  next  to  the  tribes  between  the  Welle  River  and  Lake 
Chad,  with  which  the  group  just  described  seems  to  be  connected, 
we  are  faced,  at  least  so  far  as  the  Welle  drainage  is  concerned, 
by  an  almost  complete  lack  of  individual  measurements.  The 
most  important  peoples  of  this  section  are  undoubtedly  the 
Mangbettu  and  Azandi  (Niam-Niam),  who  at  one  time  had 
built  up  quite  a power  in  the  country.  According  to  verbal  de- 
scriptions and  the  very  meagre  metrical  data,1  these  tribes  vary 
considerably  in  color  and  stature,  but  seem  in  general  to  be  some- 
what lighter-skinned  and  shorter  than  the  Nilotic  Negroes.  The 
Mangbettus,  from  descriptions  and  the  two  known  crania,  ap- 
pear to  have  a very  considerable  Palae-Alpine  element.  Since 
they  lived  in  the  near  vicinity  of  the  Akka,  the  first  of  the  Pigmy 
tribes  to  be  clearly  described  by  any  European,  it  is  not  improb- 
able that  we  have  here  one  source  at  least  of  the  brachycephalic 
factor  which  the  Mangbettus  show.  The  same  seems  to  be  true 
of  the  Banda  and  Sango  tribes  on  the  Ubangi  just  above  its 
most  northern  bend. 

For  the  tribes  east  and  south  of  Lake  Chad  our  materials  are 
considerably  more  abundant.2  Here  we  may  make  three  groups. 
The  first,  which  may  be  called  the  upper  Shari  group,  comprises 
the  Kumbra,  Sara,  Wadama,  and  probably  other  tribes,  extend- 
ing southwestward  as  far  as  the  upper  Sangha  River  in  Cam- 
eroon. They  are  characterized  by  a very  tall  stature,  ranging 
from  174  cm.  in  the  Wadama  to  183  cm.  in  the  Kumbra,  who  thus 
appear  to  be  the  tallest  people  in  the  African  continent.  In  all, 
the  brachycephalic  factors  are  predominant,  reaching  a maximum 
in  the  gigantic  Kumbras,  who  are  almost  purely  so,  with  an  aver- 

1 Shrubsall,  1901 ; Chantre,  1904. 

2 Talbot,  1916;  Tucker,  1910;  Gaillard,  1914. 


230 


AFRICA 


age  cephalic  index  of  over  85.  In  skin  color  and  hair  there  ap- 
pears to  be  but  little  difference  between  the  various  tribes,  all 
being  quite  black  and  with  normal  Negro  hair.  The  round- 
headed  factor  present  here  in  such  strong  proportions  is  unmis- 
takably the  Palae-Alpine  type,  and  a peculiar  problem  is  thus 
presented,  for  elsewhere,  with  very  few  exceptions,  the  admix- 
ture of  this  element  (which  throughout  the  whole  of  the  centre 
of  the  continent  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  Pigmy  peoples) 
leads  to  a diminution  in  stature;  here,  on  the  contrary,  the  Kum- 
bras,  who  show  the  largest  proportion  of  this  type,  are  the  tallest 
folk  in  Africa ! In  no  other  portion  of  the  continent  have  any 
people  as  yet  been  found  who  are  frankly  brachycephalic  and  at 
the  same  time  above  medium  stature  (165  cm.).  Two  sugges- 
tions offer  themselves  in  explanation  of  the  puzzle.  On  the  one 
hand,  it  may  be  that  the  Kumbras  are  not  really  a brachycephalic 
people,  but  one  who  are  normally  mesocephalic  or  dolicho- 
cephalic, and  who  practise  some  form  of  artificial  cranial  def- 
ormation which  completely  modifies  the  proportions  of  the 
head.  I have  been  able  to  find  no  indication  of  this,  however, 
and,  if  this  explanation  is  ruled  out,  there  seems  no  other  way 
but  to  suppose  that  the  same  environmental  or  other  causes 
which  have  led  to  the  development  of  tall  statures  among  the 
almost  purely  dolichocephalic  Nilotic  tribes,  have  been  operative 
here  also,  and  have  produced  a people  of  abnormally  tall  stature 
from  one  which  elsewhere  is  markedly  undersized;  have,  in  other 
words,  developed  a giant  Palae-Alpine  type  in  a region  but  little 
removed  from  that  in  which  the  pigmy  form  of  the  same  type 
becomes  strongly  marked ! This  seems  to  be  so  improbable  that 
I cannot  but  believe  that  evidences  of  artificial  deformation  will 
be  found. 

Whatever  be  the  cause  of  this  abnormally  tall  stature,  it  is 
clear  that  we  have  in  this  upper  Shari  region  an  area  in  which 
the  Palae-Alpine  type  is  very  strongly  in  evidence.  Eastward 
toward  the  Nuba-Fertitawi-Tagalawi  group,  just  west  of  the 
Nilotic  Negroes,  the  proportion  of  this  type  falls  off  quite  regu- 
larly, and  we  seem  forced  to  regard  this  area  as  the  proximate 


CENTRAL  AND  WEST  AFRICA  AND  THE  SUDAN  231 


source  of  the  brachycephalic  factors,  which  have  penetrated 
eastward  almost  to  the  Nile.  Southward  along  the  Ubangi  River 
this  brachycephalic  element  declines  rapidly  in  importance,  only 
to  rise  again  in  the  Congo  region,  as  described  on  a previous 
page.  This  northern  area  of  round-headedness  seems  thus  to  be 
a portion  of  a once  continuous  region,  which  has  been  cut  off 
from  the  main  area  in  the  south  by  the  westward  movement  of 
dolichocephalic,  Negroid  tribes  who  followed  down  the  Ubangi 
and  Congo  to  the  sea,  reinforcing  thus,  as  previously  pointed 
out,  the  long-headed  elements  among  the  peoples  of  the  Gaboon. 

The  second  group  of  peoples  in  the  Lake  Chad  region  may  be 
spoken  of  as  the  Chad  tribes,  and  includes  the  Buduma,  of  the 
lake  itself,  and  the  Bagirmi,  Mundong,  Kotoko,  Kanuri,  Nyasser, 
Borlawa,  etc.,  to  the  south  and  southeast.  All  of  these  tribes 
are  again,  with  one  exception,  tall,  ranging  from  an  average  of 
170  cm.  in  the  case  of  the  Borlawa  to  180  cm.  among  the  Kotoko. 
The  Kanuri  are,  on  the  other  hand,  but  just  over  medium  stature. 
The  skin  color  varies  somewhat,  but  is  in  general  dark  to  very 
dark.  In  head-form,  all  without  exception  show  a strong  ma- 
jority of  the  Proto-Negroid  type,  the  Buduma  ranking  first  in 
this  respect.  All  have  a small  minority  of  the  Palas-Alpine  and 
Caspian  types,  in  most  cases  little  more  than  a trace.  The  group 
is  thus  very  similar,  apparently,  to  the  Nilotic  Negroes,  and  the 
Shilluk  and  Buduma  are  almost  identical.  They  are  also  much 
like  the  Furawi  of  Darfur,  so  that  we  may  almost  say  that  we 
have  a continuous  belt  of  nearly  pure  Proto-Negroid  peoples, 
normally  of  tall  stature,  extending  from  the  Shilluk  and  Dinka 
of  the  Nile  westward  to  Lake  Chad,  and  pressing  southward  on 
the  eastern  and  western  sides  of  a wedge  of  peoples  more  or  less 
strongly  marked  by  the  prevalence  of  the  Palas- Alpine  type,  some 
of  which  are  of  tall  and  others  of  short  stature. 

North  and  northeast  of  Lake  Chad  is  the  third  group  of 
tribes,  which  belongs  properly  in  the  Sahara  region.  Some,  such 
as  the  Ouled  Sliman,  are  relatively  recent  immigrants  from  north 
of  the  desert;  others,  like  the  Teda  or  Tibbu,  whose  centre  of  dis- 
tribution lies  in  the  Tibesti  Mountains  far  in  the  heart  of  the 


232 


AFRICA 


Sahara,  seem  to  be  very  old  occupants  of  the  area.  On  what 
must  be  admitted  to  be  very  slender  evidence,  these  Tibbus  seem 
to  be  a mixture  of  peoples  of  the  Proto-Negroid  type,  who  in 
all  probability  in  very  early  times  occupied  all  the  habitable 
portions  of  the  Sahara,  and  others  who  were  predominantly 
Caspian.  These  easterly  immigrants  were  already  pouring  into 
Nubia  in  Neolithic  times,  and  may  well  have  passed  through  the 
Tibesti  region  on  their  way  northwest  toward  the  Atlas  and  the 
Algerian  plateaus.  These  Tibbus1  are  tall  and,  although  ex- 
tremely black,  their  hair  is  not  woolly  like  a Negro’s,  but  only 
wavy  or  curly.  They  have,  moreover,  rather  commonly  fine 
faces,  with  aquiline  noses  and  very  little  prognathism,  and  are 
thus  altogether  in  striking  contrast  with  the  Sudanese  Negroes. 

The  portion  of  the  Sudan  lying  west  of  Lake  Chad  to  the 
Atlantic  coast  is  the  region  in  which  the  Hausa,  Songhai,  Fula, 
and  other  tribes  have  played  so  large  a part,  but  the  very  meagre 
data  which  are  to  be  had  on  them  will  be  more  intelligible  if 
we  first  consider  the  area  to  the  south,  i.  e.,  the  Guinea  coast. 
The  population  of  this  whole  territory,  from  Cameroon  in  the 
east  to  Senegal  in  the  west,  comprises  the  bulk  of  the  “true 
Negroes.”  Extremely  black  in  color  in  the  west,  they  tend  on 
the  whole  to  become  slightly  lighter  eastward,  although  the  dif- 
ferences would  not  seem  to  be  great.  In  stature  the  Senegalese 
tribes,2  such  as  the  Wolof,  Toucouleurs,  etc.,  with  an  average  of 
172-175  cm.,  are  distinctly  tall,  and,  although  eastward  the 
stature  drops  somewhat,  it  rises  again  to  about  170  cm.  among 
the  tribes  of  southern  Nigeria3  and  the  Cameroon  coast.  The 
tribes  of  the  central  parts  both  of  Cameroon  and  Nigeria  are 
notably  shorter,  the  Kagoro4  of  Nigeria  barely  attaining  an  av- 
erage of  160  cm. 

Without  exception  all  the  peoples  of  this  area  show  a pre- 
dominance of  platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  factors,  yet  every- 
where there  is  a strong  minority  of  the  broad-nosed,  brachy- 
cephalic  forms.  This  latter  factor  is,  in  general,  somewhat 


1 Bouilliez,  1913. 
3Tremearne,  1912. 


2 Deniker,  1890;  Verneau,  1896. 
4 Tremearne,  op.  oil. 


CENTRAL  AND  WEST  AFRICA  AND  THE  SUDAN  233 


larger  than  among  the  Chad  group  of  tribes,  but  is  smaller  than 
among  the  Tagalawi-Nuba-Fertitawi  group  of  the  northeastern 
Sudan.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  relatively  considerable  ele- 
ment of  the  Palas- Alpine  type  is  found  in  an  area  forming  the  long 
western  extension  of  the  equatorial  forest,  in  which  in  the  Congo 
basin,  the  Pigmy  variety  of  this  type  attained  its  greatest  fre- 
quency. It  is  perhaps  justifiable,  therefore,  to  conclude  that 
the  Pigmy  Palae-Alpine  peoples  once  extended  throughout  this 
whole  strip  of  the  Guinea  coast,  but  have  here  ceased  to  sur- 
vive as  an  independent  people  farther  west  than  Cameroon,  al- 
though vague  reports  of  Pigmy  tribes  farther  west  have  been 
made.  In  the  coastal  tribes  of  Cameroon,  such  as  the  Duala,1 
there  appears  to  be  very  little  trace  of  any  Caspian  element; 
farther  north,  however,  in  Nigeria,  the  Kagoro,  Kajji,  Ekoi,2 
and  Munchi3  have  quite  a strong  dash  of  it,  and  it  appears 
again  in  slighter  amount  among  the  Kru  and  Wei  of  the  Liberian 
coast.4  The  latter  might  well  be  expected  to  show  a leaven  of 
this  higher  type,  since  they  belong  to  the  Mandingo  group  of 
tribes,  whose  main  territory  lies  inland  toward  the  western  Su- 
dan, and  who  by  tradition  came  into  the  upper  Niger  region  from 
farther  eastward  in  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century,  if  not  before. 

The  cranial  data  which  we  have  from  Cameroon5  bring  out 
clearly  the  relation  of  the  Palae-Alpine  element  to  the  Pigmy 
peoples,  for  the  coastal  tribes  show  this  in  a proportion  of  about 
35  per  cent,  which  increases  inland  to  the  Sangha  River  Pigmies,® 
among  whom  it  reaches  nearly  60  per  cent.  Among  the  Ashanti7 
of  the  Gold  Coast,  however,  the  proportion  drops  below  io  per 
cent,  while  the  Proto-Negroid  rises  to  over  50  per  cent.  The 
latter  thus  seem  to  be  quite  comparable  to  the  Chad  group  in 
the  Sudan  and  to  the  southern  Bantu,  whereas  the  Cameroon 
tribes  are  about  midway  between  the  lower  Congo  peoples  and 
those  of  the  Gaboon. 

The  neighboring  people  of  Dahomey,8  on  the  other  hand, 

1 Virchow,  1887.  5 Keith,  1911.  ‘Malcolm,  1920. 

4 Virchow,  1889  b.  6 Thorbecke,  1919;  Drontschilov,  1913. 

* Kuhn,  1914.  7 Shrubsall,  1898.  8 Elkind,  1912. 


234 


AFRICA 


seem  to  show  no  trace  of  any  Caspian  element,  but  do  reveal  the 
presence  of  a small  Alpine  factor,  which  has,  I believe,  much 
significance.  This  seems  in  all  probability  to  be  attributable  to 
the  influence  of  relatively  modern  Arab  mixture,  a considerable 
proportion  of  these  being  known  to  have  come  from  the  southern 
portion  of  Arabia,  where  the  Alpine  element  is  to-day  strongly 
marked.  Nowhere  else  in  Africa,  south  of  the  Sahara,  does  this 
type  appear,  except  where  modern  South  Arabian  influence  is 
probable  or  proved. 

From  all  the  data  we  may  conclude  that  the  early  population 
of  the  Guinea-coast  region  was  closely  comparable  to  that  of  the 
Congo  forest,  i.  e.,  a Pigmy  Pake- Alpine  people,  and  that  these 
have  been  overlaid  by  a strong  immigration  of  typical  Negroes, 
in  whom  the  Proto-Negroid  type  was  in  large  majority,  and  asso- 
ciated with  a minority  of  the  Pro  to- Australoid  type.  This  Negro 
immigration  was  in  part  a westerly  drift  from  the  Chad-Nile 
area,  and  in  part  a direct  southward  movement  from  the  west- 
ern Sudan  and  the  Sahara  borders,  forced  by  the  expansion  in 
the  Sahara  region  of  the  Caspian  peoples  who  have  poured  into 
northern  Africa  since  very  early  times. 

We  come  finally  to  the  peoples  of  the  Sudan  lying  west  of 
Lake  Chad.  The  most  important  of  the  tribes  here  are  the 
Hausa,  Mandingo,  and  Fula.  Although  they  have  become  rather 
widely  scattered,  the  first  are  mainly  concentrated  toward  the 
east,  the  second  and  third  in  the  west.  All  three  have  here  and 
there  penetrated  southward  almost  if  not  quite  to  the  seacoast. 
So  far  as  can  be  judged  by  their  traditions,  the  Fula  are  the  old- 
est residents  in  the  region,  having  been  the  dominant  power  in 
the  western  Sudan,  at  least  as  early  as  the  tenth  century.  They 
expanded  eastward,  but  did  not  pass  the  Niger  until  the  early 
nineteenth  century.  The  Mandingo  are  probably  the  next  older 
group,  who,  coming  from  the  eastward,  conquered  and  gradually 
displaced  the  Fula  in  the  eleventh  century.  They  built  up  the 
considerable  kingdom  of  Mali  and  by  the  thirteenth  century  had 
already  been  converted  to  Islam.  Three  hundred  years  later, 
however,  the  Fula  again  assumed  the  leadership.  While  the 


CENTRAL  AND  WEST  AFRICA  AND  THE  SUDAN  235 


Mandingo  were  building  up  their  power  in  the  west,  the  Hausa, 
whose  earliest  traditional  home  was  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Chad  basin,  had  become  an  important  political  power  in  the 
central  western  Sudan.  More  peaceful  than  either  the  Man- 
dingo  or  the  Fula,  they  were  agriculturalists  rather  than  herds- 
men, as  were  these,  and  were,  further,  great  traders,  as  were,  to 
be  sure,  the  Mandingo.  The  eastward  expansion  of  the  Fula 
after  their  conquest  of  the  Mandingo  led  to  the  downfall  of  the 
Hausa,  although  this  was  not  fully  accomplished  until  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

The  racial  aspects  of  this  brief  historical  outline  are  of  much  in- 
terest, for,  whereas  the  Hausa  appear  to  be  quite  uniform  in  physi- 
cal characteristics,  the  Songhai,  Mandingo  and  Fula  show  every 
evidence  of  considerable  mixture.  The  Hausa1  are  of  moderately 
tall  stature,  averaging  about  168  cm.,  but,  although  very  black 
in  skin  color,  their  hair  is  not  as  typically  woolly  nor  their  lips 
as  thick  as  among  the  true  Negro  tribes  to  the  southward.  The 
analysis  of  Tremearne’s  measurements  shows  that  the  Proto- 
Negroid  and  Pro  to- Australoid  types  make  up  over  70  per  cent 
of  the  total,  the  most  important  minority  being  the  Caspian, 
which  amounts  to  approximately  15  per  cent.  The  Palae- Alpine 
factor  is  very  small.  In  their  composition,  therefore,  they  are 
quite  comparable  with  the  Baganda  among  the  northern  Bantu 
of  Uganda,  although  they  have  slightly  less  of  the  Caspian  ele- 
ment than  these.  In  comparison  with  their  immediate  neigh- 
bors of  the  Chad  group,  they  have,  on  the  other  hand,  rather 
more  of  the  Caspian  type,  and  may  well  have  once  been  a part 
of  this  group,  who  in  some  way  assimilated  a larger  proportion 
of  the  higher  cultured  Caspian  folk.  Whether  this  is  to  be 
attributed  mainly  or  in  part  to  an  Arab  source  is  an  interesting 
speculation.  It  was  in  the  eleventh  century  that  the  great  Arab 
migration  into  northern  Africa  took  place,  and  it  was  approxi- 
mately at  this  time  that  the  Hausa  seem  first  to  have  attained 
to  political  dominance.  The  Hausa  language  shows  large  bor- 
rowings from  the  Arabic,  which  fact  seems  to  strengthen  the 

1 Tremearne,  1911. 


236 


AFRICA 


above  suggestion.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  at  least  as  probable 
that  a very  considerable  portion  of  the  Caspian  element  assimi- 
lated by  the  Hausa  is  derived  from  a very  much  earlier  immigra- 
tion, i.  e.,  that  which  brought  great  floods  of  this  type  into 
northern  Africa  far  back  in  Neolithic  times,  and  which  appar- 
ently was  still  coming  into  Nubia  and  the  upper  Nile  region  dur- 
ing much  of  the  period  covered  by  Egyptian  history,  and  pass- 
ing by  way  of  the  Egyptian  Sudan  into  the  Sahara  and  farther 
north.  The  rise  to  political  power  of  the  Hausa  may  indeed 
have  been  stimulated  by  a small,  medieval  Arab  factor,  but  the 
essentials  of  their  racial  composition  may  have  been  present  long 
before  the  Arab  invasion.  The  Songhais  or  Sonrais1  appear  to 
have  a larger  Palse-Alpine  element  than  the  Hausa. 

The  Mandingo2  tribes  seem,  in  contrast  with  the  Hausa,  to 
be  very  variable  in  their  characters.  This  holds  true  in  skin 
color  as  well  as  in  the  form  of  their  hair,  some  being  fairly  light, 
others  very  black,  while  the  hair  is  often  long  and  frizzly  rather 
than  short  and  woolly.  A portrait  of  a Mandingo  is  given  on 
Plate  XIII,  Fig.  4.  In  stature  they  rank  a little  above  the 
Hausa,  the  average  ranging  between  169  and  171  cm.  Except 
for  the  Wei3  or  Vei,  of  the  Liberia  coast,  we  have  no  individual 
measurements  for  any  Mandingo  tribe,  and  must  rely,  there- 
fore, as  best  we  may  on  the  mere  averages  given  in  French 
sources.  The  Mandingo  proper,  together  with  the  Malinke, 
Bambara,  etc.,  who  form  part  of  the  main  mass  of  these  tribes  in 
Senegal,  are  characterized  by  a very  large  platyrrhine,  dolicho- 
cephalic factor,  amounting  to  something  like  80-90  per  cent, 
with  which  is  combined  a small  Palae-Alpine  minority.  So  far 
as  the  data  go,  there  is  no  trace  whatever  of  any  Caspian,  leptor- 
rhine  element,  every  one  of  the  sixty  or  more  men  measured  by 
Girard  being  clearly  platyrrhine,  so  that  they  are  closely  com- 
parable with  the  Nilotic  Shilluk  and  Nuer,  although  lacking  their 
taller  stature.  The  Wei  or  Vei  of  Liberia,  however,  a Mandingo 
tribe  which  has  pushed  southward  to  the  seacoast,  are  more 
comparable  to  the  Nuba  group  in  that  they  have  a somewhat 

•Verneau,  1916-17.  2 Girard,  1902.  3 Virchow,  1889  b. 


CENTRAL  AND  WEST  AFRICA  AND  THE  SUDAN  237 


larger  Palae-Alpine  element,  and  also  a small  minority  of  the 
Caspian  type.  In  stature  they  are  similar  to  the  shorter  of  the 
other  Mandingo  tribes.  The  larger  proportion  of  Palae-Alpine 
factors  found  among  the  Vei  may  probably  be  explained  as  due 
to  assimilation  from  the  older  brachycephalic  underlying  popula- 
tion, through  which  this  Mandingo  people  had  to  force  their  way 
to  the  coast. 

The  Fula,1  lastly,  are  very  tall,  averaging  between  174  and 
176  cm.,  and  are  thus  almost  on  a par  with  the  very  tall  Negro 
tribes  of  the  Chad  region  and  the  upper  Nile.  In  skin  color 
they  are  generally  of  a reddish  brown,  varying  to  merely  olive 
tints,  and  their  hair  is  wavy  only  and  sometimes  almost  straight. 
Thin  lips  and  well-shaped,  often  aquiline,  noses  further  serve  to 
differentiate  them  sharply  from  all  their  neighbors.  Where,  as 
in  parts  of  Nigeria,  they  have  intermarried  with  Negro  slaves, 
the  Fula  are  quite  obviously  more  Negroid.  The  extremely 
meagre  series  of  measurements  of  the  Fula  seem  to  show  unmis- 
takably a relatively  large  Caspian  element,  which  rises  possibly 
to  nearly  30  per  cent  in  some  cases.  If  in  the  case  of  the  Hausa 
there  is  much  to  lead  us  to  suppose  that  the  Caspian  element  is 
of  early  origin,  there  is  an  even  greater  probability  that  in  the 
Fula  we  must  place  this  amalgamation  of  Caspian  and  Negro 
peoples  in  the  distant  past.2  Indeed,  it  seems  not  impossible  that 
in  this  case  we  are  not  dealing  with  a Negro  people  who  have 
absorbed  a certain  element  of  the  eastern  immigrants  of  higher 
culture,  but  rather  with  a body  of  these  ancient  peoples  from 
Asia  who,  early  penetrating  to  the  western  margin  of  the  con- 
tinent, have,  in  the  long  period  since,  absorbed  a large  Negro 
element  from  the  ancient  population  of  this  type,  which  is  be- 
lieved originally  to  have  held  not  only  the  Sudan  but  most  of 
the  Sahara  as  well. 

1 Verneau,  1899,  1916-17;  Girard,  1902.  2But  see  Verneau,  1916-17. 


BOOK  III 
ASIA 


INTRODUCTION 


In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  a sketch  of  the  racial 
history  of  the  Asiatic  continent  can  be  drawn  only  in  very  broad 
outline.  We  have,  it  is  true,  considerable  historical  information, 
an  aid  which  is  lacking,  for  instance,  in  the  New  World,  but  we 
are  handicapped  by  the  extreme  paucity  of  any  sort  of  archaeo- 
logical data,  so  that  the  prehistoric  period  can  be  reconstructed 
only  by  inference.  It  is  possible,  nevertheless,  to  draw  certain 
conclusions  in  regard  to  the  early  distribution  and  movements  of 
the  different  physical  types,  which  seem  to  explain  the  present 
facts.  Before  attempting  these  inferences,  however,  certain  geo- 
graphical features  must  be  emphasized  which  have  had  impor- 
tant bearing  on  the  continent’s  racial  history. 

Asia  may  be  divided  into  three  great  portions:  (i)  a northern 
lowland  extending  from  the  Caspian  Sea  northeastward  toward 
Bering  Straits,  and  from  the  margin  of  the  interior  plateaus 
northward  to  the  Arctic;  (2)  a central  plateau  area,  stretching  in 
an  irregular  crescent  from  the  western  end  of  Asia  Minor  through 
Persia,  Afghanistan,  Tibet,  Mongolia,  and  the  dissected  uplands 
of  eastern  Siberia  to  the  northeastern  extremity  of  the  conti- 
nent; and  (3)  the  southern  and  eastern  borderlands,  comprising 
the  great  peninsulas  of  Arabia,  India,  and  Farther  India,  together 
with  the  eastern  margin  of  the  continent,  thus  including  the 
larger  part  of  China,  Manchuria,  Korea,  and  Kamchatka,  with 
the  Japanese  and  Kurile  archipelagoes. 

The  northern  lowlands  are  at  their  southwestern  end  a region 
of  steppe  and  desert  grasslands,  and  are  continuous  with  the 
great  plains  of  Russia,  so  that  peoples  have  been  free  to  move 
from  one  to  the  other,  Asia  here  having  a broad,  open  gateway 
into  Europe.  The  northern  and  eastern  portion  of  these  low- 
lands, however,  is  forested,  and  the  climate  arctic.  The  plateau 
belt  is  divided  into  two  unequal  parts  by  a narrow  constriction 

241 


242 


ASIA 


in  the  region  of  the  Pamirs.  The  narrower  western  portion,  in- 
cluding Afghanistan,  Baluchistan,  Persia,  Armenia,  and  Asia 
Minor,  lies  at  an  elevation  of  from  three  to  five  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea,  is  arid  or  even  desert  over  large  areas,  meets 
Europe  at  the  Balkan  peninsula  at  its  western  end,  and  there 
and  along  the  Persian  Gulf  comes  directly  down  to  the  sea.  The 
eastern  and  broader  portion  of  the  plateau  region  is  more  com- 
plex in  its  character,  including  as  it  does  the  high  plateaus  of 
Tibet,  ranging  in  elevation  from  10,000  to  17,000  feet;  the  wide, 
much  lower  uplands  of  Mongolia,  in  elevation  comparable  with 
those  of  the  western  plateaus;  the  great  basin  of  Eastern  or  Chi- 
nese Turkestan;  and  the  much  dissected  upland  region  which 
extends  from  Mongolia  northeastward  to  Bering  Strait.  On 
the  west  the  Mongolian  plateau  opens  through  the  wide  corridor 
of  Dzungaria,  onto  the  steppes  of  southern  Siberia,  affording  a 
broad  highway  for  peoples  from  the  plateau  to  pass  into  the 
northern  lowland  and  thence  on  into  eastern  Europe;  the  Arctic 
termination  of  the  plateaus  toward  the  northeast,  on  the  other 
hand,  affords  a narrow  gateway  into  a similar  Arctic  land  in  the 
northwest  of  America. 

The  peninsulas  of  the  southern  borderlands  are  in  striking 
contrast  with  each  other.  Arabia,  a vast  desert  plateau,  fringed 
by  deserts  excepting  for  the  narrow  ribbon  of  Mesopotamian  fer- 
tility; India,  although  desert  in  the  west,  mainly  a land  of  low 
plateaus  and  tropical  lowlands,  rimmed  and  guarded  on  the  north 
by  the  snowy  heights  of  the  Himalayas;  and  Farther  India,  a land 
of  contrasts,  of  high,  cool  mountain  ranges  running  northward  to 
the  bleak  Tibetan  uplands,  and  low,  hot  valleys  opening  on  tropi- 
cal seas,  the  whole  stretching  out  a long,  thin  finger  into  the 
archipelago  of  Indonesia.  The  eastern  borderlands,  too,  present 
their  contrasts:  southern  China  semitropical,  hilly,  almost  rug- 
ged; northern  China  temperate,  with  the  great  fertile  plain  of 
the  Yellow  River  and  Yangtse  deltas;  and  half-arid  Manchuria 
joined  by  the  rocky  peninsula  of  Korea  to  the  mountainous  and 
volcanic  archipelago  of  Japan. 

We  can  hardly  attempt  as  yet  to  reconstruct  the  events  in 


INTRODUCTION 


243 


racial  history  which  took  place  in  Asia  in  Palaeolithic  times.  No 
authentic  find  of  Palaeolithic  man  has  up  to  the  present  been 
made  anywhere  in  the  continent,  and  data  even  of  Neolithic  age 
are  all  but  lacking.  Yet  the  outlines  of  human  distribution  at  a 
period  roughly  synchronous  with  the  Neolithic  period  in  Europe 
may,  I think,  be  dimly  seen.  At  this  time  the  southern  and  east- 
ern borderlands,  from  India  around  to  Kamchatka,  seem  to  have 
been  occupied  in  the  main  by  a dolichocephalic,  dark-skinned, 
Negroid  population  which  was  a blend  in  varying  proportions  of 
the  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types.  There  is  some 
evidence  which  leads  us  to  believe  that  this  Negroid  population 
extended  farther  westward  than  India,  along  the  shores  of  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  the  southern  coast  of  Arabia,  so  being  con- 
tinuous with  the  great  area  held  by  similar  peoples  in  Africa. 
Whether  the  Proto- Australoid  type  definitely  preceded  the  Proto- 
Negroid  throughout  this  whole  region  we  have  as  yet  no  means 
of  knowing,  although  the  distribution  of  the  two  types  in  Oceania 
seems  to  show  that  it  did.  At  any  rate,  the  Proto-Negroid  type 
later  came  to  dominate  in  the  south,  at  least,  and  seems  to  have 
streamed  through  the  southern  borderlands  eastward  into  the 
Pacific.  In  the  eastern  margin  of  the  continent,  this  type  does 
not  seem  ever  to  have  become  dominant.  Nowhere,  so  far  as 
can  be  seen,  did  these  ancient  Negroid  peoples  penetrate  far  into 
the  great  plateau  region,  whose  southern  and  eastern  escarp- 
ments formed  barriers  which  they  rarely  crossed. 

Although  this  blend  of  Pro  to- Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid 
types  formed  everywhere  the  fundamental  basis  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  borderlands,  two  other  types  were  also  present.  Prob- 
ably the  earliest  of  these  was  the  Caspian,  which  at  a very  early 
period  had  spread  throughout  most  of  the  northern  lowland  and 
had  forced  its  way  across  the  eastern  plateaus  to  Farther  India 
and  the  eastern  coast.  Sweeping  through  Dzungaria  and  over 
the  upland,  they  came  into  China  and  Manchuria,  and  passed 
by  way  of  Korea  into  Japan,  where  their  presence  in  Neolithic 
times  has  been  recently  established.  Another  branch  seems  to 
have  followed  down  the  great  rivers  and  mountain  ranges  which 


244 


ASIA 


spread  fan-wise  from  eastern  Tibet,  so  penetrating  into  Farther 
India,  from  whence  they  passed  on  into  Indonesia  and  the 
Pacific.  The  effects  of  this  great  early  thrust  of  the  Caspian 
peoples  toward  the  east  and  southeast  may  still  be  traced  in 
parts  of  the  borderlands  to-day,  where  individuals  of  strikingly 
European  features,  with  light  hair  and  eyes  and  rosy  cheeks,  are 
sometimes  found. 

The  other  of  these  early  types  present  in  the  borderlands  was 
the  Pake-Alpine,  in  regard  to  which,  however,  several  difficult 
problems  arise.  At  the  present  day  this  type  exhibits  two  forms, 
strikingly  different  in  outward  appearance,  yet  closely  similar  in 
skeletal  characteristics.  One,  which  forms  the  large  and  often 
preponderant  part  of  the  population  of  southeastern  Asia,  is 
short,  with  a light  yellowish  skin,  straight  hair,  little  progna- 
thism, and  is  marked  by  a variable  and  sometimes  considerable 
development  of  the  Mongoloid  eye;  the  other,  the  Negrito,  sur- 
viving to-day  in  small  fragments  only  in  the  Andaman  Islands 
and  the  Malay  Peninsula,  is  shorter  in  stature,  black-skinned, 
woolly-haired,  and  rather  prognathic.  Both  groups,  in  spite  of 
their  great  outward  differences,  are  round-headed,  high-skulled, 
and  broad-nosed,  and  thus  must  be  classed  as  belonging  to  the 
Pake-Alpine  type.  To  group  together  as  members  of  a single 
type  two  peoples  outwardly  so  distinct,  on  the  basis  merely  of 
their  agreement  in  respect  to  the  three  criteria  here  chosen, 
seems,  to  say  the  least,  venturesome.  Yet  I believe  the  action 
is  defensible;  its  justification  and  the  discussion  of  the  problems 
involved,  however,  must  be  deferred  to  the  final  chapter,  when 
the  similar  dilemma  in  regard  to  the  African  Pigmies  can  also  be 
considered.  For  the  time  being  I shall  simply  beg  the  question, 
and  refer  to  the  short,  Negroid,  brachycephalic  peoples  as  the 
Negrito  branch  of  the  Palae- Alpine  type.  How  or  when  these 
appeared  in  the  southern  borderlands  we  have  as  yet  no  means 
of  knowing,  but  that  they  were  present  already  in  Neolithic 
times  in  Farther  India,  and  perhaps  in  India  itself,  seems  very 
probable.  How  widely,  too,  they  were  distributed  is  very  hard 
to  say.  The  fact  that  short,  Negroid  survivals  are  reported  to 


INTRODUCTION 


245 


have  been  found  in  the  extreme  southwest  of  China,  makes  it 
possible  that  the  Negrito  once  had  a wider  distribution  than  was 
at  one  time  thought. 

The  great  mass  of  the  Palae-Alpine  peoples  belonged,  however, 
to  the  main  type,  and  seem  to  have  come  as  very  early  immi- 
grants from  the  eastern  plateaus.  Farther  north,  in  Japan, 
archaeological  evidence  shows  that  they  were  mixed  with  peo- 
ples of  Caspian  type,  and,  although  we  have  as  yet  no  archaeo- 
logical proof  of  this  in  the  southeast,  the  indications  afforded  by 
the  racial  distributions  in  the  Indonesian  and  Pacific  areas 
strongly  suggest  the  same  condition  here.  As  a result  of  this 
Palae-Alpine  immigration,  the  older  dolichocephalic  population 
was  over  great  areas  dispossessed  of  the  better  lands,  which  were 
taken  by  the  probably  agricultural  invaders,  and  was  either 
forced  off  the  mainland  to  settle  in  Indonesia,  or  driven  into  the 
higher  uplands  and  mountain  regions,  beginning  thus  the  curi- 
ous horizontal  stratification  of  racial  types  which  is  now  so 
marked  over  considerable  parts  of  the  southeast  of  the  continent. 

Into  India  no  immigration  of  Caspian  or  Palae-Alpine  types 
seems  to  have  occurred  at  this  earliest  period,  but  farther  west 
the  former  light-skinned  northerners  had  swarmed  across  the 
western  plateaus  in  Persia  and  so  into  Arabia  and  beyond,  for 
we  find  them  in  the  Nile  valley,  in  Egypt,  and  in  Nubia  in 
Pre-Dynastic  times. 

Passing  over  for  the  moment  the  area  of  the  plateaus,  let  us 
turn  to  the  northern  lowland,  whence  these  Caspian  peoples 
seem  to  have  come,  and  see  what  may  be  said  of  its  population 
in  Neolithic  times.  North  of  the  plateaus  the  earliest  traceable 
population  seems  to  have  been,  like  that  in  the  southern  and 
eastern  borderlands,  dolichocephalic,  but  here  made  up  in  the 
main  of  different  elements.  The  Aralo-Caspian  basin  and  south- 
western Siberia  must  in  Neolithic  times  have  had  a somewhat 
more  favorable  climate  than  to-day,  and  formed  the  centre  of  a 
vast  area  of  grasslands,  extending  from  the  borders  of  central 
Europe  into  the  heart  of  Asia,  and  from  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
northern  edge  of  the  Iranian  plateau  to  the  margin  of  the  north- 


246 


ASIA 


ern  forests.  Here  was  the  homeland,  it  would  seem,  of  the  Cas- 
pian type,  horse-loving  nomad  warriors,  fair-skinned  and  having 
ingrained  in  them  a tendency  toward  blondness.  Hence  they 
had  streamed  eastward  across  Mongolia  to  the  Pacific;  west- 
ward through  the  steppes  and  the  borders  of  the  oak  forest  of 
central  Russia,  to  the  Baltic  lands  and  western  Europe;  and 
southward  over  the  narrow  Persian  upland  to  the  grazing  lands 
of  Arabia.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  they  held  not  only 
the  grasslands,  but  extended  eastward  through  the  southern  for- 
est regions  of  eastern  Siberia  far  toward  Bering  Strait. 

While  the  Aralo-Caspian  basin  was  held  in  the  main  by  the 
Caspian  type,  they  seem  to  have  shared  it  in  the  south  with  an 
eastern  arm  of  Mediterranean  peoples,  whose  major  distribution 
lay  farther  to  the  west.  Here,  in  the  gradually  desiccating  re- 
gion of  Turkestan,  there  grew  up  among  these  blended  peoples  a 
more  sedentary  form  of  life,  in  which  pastoral  pursuits  were  com- 
bined with  simple  agriculture  in  the  irrigable  oases;  and  from  this 
region  in  later  times  came  fresh  waves  of  migrants,  as  will  be 
pointed  out  presently. 

The  Neolithic  population  of  the  plateau  region  appears  to 
have  been  strongly  contrasted  with  that  both  on  the  north  and 
on  the  south.  Our  existing  data  leave  us  no  choice  but  to  re- 
gard the  plateau  peoples  as  everywhere  primarily  brachycephalic. 
Archaeological  evidence  of  this  there  is  none,  except  the  scanty 
material  from  the  northern  border  region  of  the  Trans-Baikal, 
where  supposedly  Neolithic  sites  have  yielded  both  brachyce- 
phalic and  dolichocephalic  crania.  In  Europe  the  Neolithic  pe- 
riod saw  a flood  of  peoples  of  Palae- Alpine  and  Alpine  types  press- 
ing westward  through  the  Central  European  Highlands  and  coast- 
ing along  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  shores,  and  these 
could  have  come,  so  far  as  can  be  seen,  only  from  the  western 
end  of  the  Asiatic  plateau  belt,  i.  e.,  from  Asia  Minor.  While 
we  are  thus  led  to  believe  that  the  Asiatic  uplands  were  at  this 
time,  at  least,  the  home  of  these  two  brachycephalic  types,  their 
localization  and  the  determination  of  the  order  of  their  move- 
ments are,  as  yet,  in  the  total  absence  of  archaeological  data,  prac- 


INTRODUCTION 


247 


tically  impossible.  Yet  it  may  be  suggested  that  as  the  Alpine 
type  seems  everywhere  in  eastern  Asia  to  be  later  than  the  Palae- 
Alpine,  that  the  latter  was,  at  the  earliest  period  to  which  we 
can  go  back  even  by  inference,  more  widely  distributed  in  the 
eastern  plateaus,  in  Mongolia  and  Tibet,  than  in  the  west,  and 
that  from  the  eastern  plateaus  it  pushed  out  on  the  one  hand 
toward  the  Pacific,  and  on  the  other  spread  through  the  Dzun- 
garian  gateway  westward  into  Europe,  fighting  its  way  through 
the  Caspian  peoples,  and  in  a sense  thus  blazing  the  trail  which 
was  followed  some  thousands  of  years  later  by  the  Mongol-Tatar 
hordes. 

Yet  it  must  be  admitted  that,  although  the  Alpine  type  seems 
to  have  been  more  numerous  in  the  western  plateaus,  Alpine 
peoples  must  have  reached  Mongolia,  China,  and  the  eastern 
borderlands  at  an  early  date.  By  what  routes  they  came  we  do 
not  know,  but  we  may  perhaps  surmise  that  the  basin  of  Chi- 
nese Turkestan  had  for  long  harbored  a sedentary  agricultural 
branch  of  these  people,  who  had  spread  into  it  across  the  Pamirs 
from  the  western  plateaus;  while  others,  remaining  more  pas- 
toral, followed  the  Tian-shan  range,  thus  penetrating  into  north- 
ern Mongolia,  where  they  in  part  amalgamated  with  and  in  part 
drove  back  farther  toward  the  northeast  the  ancestors  of  the 
later  Mongols.  In  course  of  time  the  sedentary  agriculturalists 
may  have  drifted  eastward  along  the  northern  base  of  the 
Tibetan  plateau,  and  so  by  way  of  the  Yellow  River  valley  to 
the  eastern  borderlands,  where  some  of  them  ultimately  became 
the  ancestors  of  the  original  Chinese  people.  Spreading  south- 
ward in  what  is  to-day  China,  they  penetrated  the  areas  held 
by  their  Palse-Alpine  predecessors,  amalgamating  with  them  and 
passing  out  into  Indonesia  as  the  Malays.  Eastward  they 
pressed  through  Korea  into  Japan,  and  northward  they  swept 
along  the  northern  borders  of  the  plateau  and  through  the 
plateau  itself,  following  the  route  taken  thousands  of  years  later 
by  the  Turkish  Yakut,  to  the  extremity  of  the  continent,  and 
passed  in  horde  after  horde  across  the  straits  to  America.  It 
was  perhaps  also  at  this  early  time  that  another  branch  of  the 


248 


ASIA 


Alpine  peoples  moved  southward  from  the  western  plateaus  to 
southern  Arabia  and  eastward  across  the  mouth  of  the  Indus 
into  western  India. 

In  the  middle  of  the  second  millennium  B.  C.  we  get  from 
historical  sources  evidences  of  a new  period  of  expansion  of  the 
mixed  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  peoples  of  the  Aralo-Caspian 
region.  Swarming  across  the  upland  of  Persia,  some  settled  in 
the  hilly  country  of  Armenia;  some  known  as  the  Kassites  de- 
scended upon  the  weakened  kingdom  of  Babylonia  and  took  it, 
holding  it  for  several  hundred  years;  others,  turning  eastward, 
came  as  the  ancestors  of  the  Hindus  into  India,  where  in  the 
northwest  they  displaced  and  elsewhere  amalgamated  with  the 
older  Negroid  peoples.  Possibly  also  at  this  time  the  ancient 
eastern  drift  across  Mongolia  was  repeated  in  much  more  feeble 
form,  yet  bringing  to  the  western  borders  of  China  an  Indo- 
European  speech,  the  Tokharian,  which  persisted  there  down  to 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 

Again,  however,  the  pendulum  swings,  and  in  the  early  cen- 
turies of  our  era  the  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  peoples  once  more 
entered  upon  a period  of  expansion.  Their  centre  of  gravity 
now  seems  to  be  in  the  east,  and  from  Mongolia  wave  after  wave 
of  Turk  and  Turko-Mongol  peoples  poured  westward  through 
Dzungaria  into  the  old  homeland  of  the  Caspian  folk,  whose  last 
remnants  they  thus  swept  away,  and  so  through  Russia  into 
central  and  western  Europe.  Northward,  too,  they  spread,  both 
into  the  Siberian  plains  and  the  northern  forests,  where  the 
Yakut,  overrunning  the  basin  of  the  Lena,  have  come  within  a 
few  hundred  miles  of  Bering  Strait.  Nor  was  the  south  neg- 
lected, for  not  only  did  the  brachycephals  invade  the  western 
plateaus,  conquering  Asia  Minor  and  passing  thence  across  into 
Europe,  but,  turning  eastward,  descended  into  India,  establish- 
ing there  the  brilliant  dynasty  of  the  Moguls.  And,  although 
Mongolia  was  for  most  of  this  latest  period  of  expansion  the 
chief  focus  from  which  they  spread,  the  eastern  margin  of  the 
continent  also  saw  their  further  extension,  which  in  the  south- 
ward drift  of  the  Shan  peoples  did  not  complete  itself  until  the 


PLATE  XIV.  ASIA.  Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  Types  (slightly  generalized). 


\ 

I 

1 

1 

1 

1 

\ ° 

/ 

PLATE  XV.  ASIA.  Percentage  distribution  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  Types  (slightly  generalized). 


PLATE  XVI.  ASIA.  Percentage  distribution  of  Palx-Alpine  and  Mongoloid  Types  (slightly  generalized). 


PLATE  XVII.  ASIA.  Percentage  distribution  of  Alpine  and  Ural  Types  (slightly  generalized). 


- 


INTRODUCTION 


249 


conquest  of  Assam  and  Siam  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries. 

A few  words  must  lastly  be  said  in  regard  to  the  Mongoloid 
type,  whose  origin  and  history  are  almost  wholly  unknown. 
Confined  to-day  within  a narrow  area  along  the  northern  bor- 
ders of  the  Mongolian  plateau,  their  part  in  the  racial  history  of 
the  continent  is  very  obscure,  and  until  we  possess  more  abun- 
dant archaeological  data  must  remain  so.  In  Europe  and  in 
Africa  the  type  to-day  occupies  almost  everywhere  an  extreme 
marginal  position,  and  seems  to  be  a very  ancient  one.  In  Asia 
it  survives  almost  in  the  very  centre  of  the  continent,  and  we 
have  no  record  of  it  back  of  the  mediaeval  period,  when  under 
Khengiz  Khan  and  his  successors  the  Mongols  leaped  for  a brief 
time  into  prominence.  They  spread  in  company  with  the  last 
great  outpouring  of  the  Alpine  peoples,  and  the  type  appears  in 
small  minority  almost  everywhere  the  Turko-Tatar  peoples 
went,  but,  apart  from  this,  no  traces  of  them  seem  to  be  found 
among  the  living  peoples  of  the  continent. 

In  Europe  we  have  seen  how  the  early  dolichocephalic  peo- 
ples, step  by  step,  gave  way  before  the  brachycephals,  until  to- 
day this  older  population  survives  only  in  marginal  areas.  The 
maps,  Plates  XIV  to  XVII,  which  give  the  present  distribution 
of  dolichocephalic  and  brachycephalic  types  in  Asia,  show  clearly 
enough  that  the  same  holds  true  also  here.  Except  for  northern 
Arabia,  parts  of  Persia,  and  most  of  India  the  dolichocephalic 
peoples  are  nowhere  in  the  majority  to-day,  except  where  small 
fragments  still  persist,  as  among  the  Ostiaks  of  northwestern 
Siberia,  the  vanishing  Ainu  of  northern  Japan,  the  Sakai  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  and  probably  a few  of  the  wilder  tribes  of  the 
more  remote  parts  of  Farther  India.  Here,  as  in  Europe,  they 
are  almost  everywhere  marginal.  The  maps  show,  so  far  as  our 
data  go,  the  present  distribution  of  the  several  types  among  the 
living  population,  and  tell  the  story  more  in  detail. 

As  may  be  seen,  the  Proto-Australoid  type  survives  to-day 
as  a factor  of  importance  only  among  the  Ostiaks,  in  the  extreme 
northwest  of  Siberia  along  the  Arctic,  in  the  south  of  India  and 


250 


ASIA 


the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  to  a less  degree  among  the  Ainu  of 
Sakhalin.  The  Proto-Negroid  is  confined  to  India  and  Farther 
India;  the  Caspian  to  northern  India,  northern  Arabia,  and  the 
borders  of  the  Iranian  Plateau.  Except  for  the  Turkoman  and 
Azerbaijan  Tatars,  east  and  west  of  the  southern  end  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  there  is  no  trace  left  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
plateau  crescent  of  the  Caspian  type,  whose  homeland  this  was 
apparently  in  Neolithic  times.  The  Palae- Alpine  type  is  to-day 
strongest  in  Farther  India,  where  it  came,  as  we  have  seen,  in 
very  early  times.  It  plays  a considerable  part,  however,  among 
the  modern  population  of  Turkestan  and  perhaps  in  Tibet,  as 
well  as  in  the  Tamils  of  southern  India  and  parts  of  Korea  and 
Japan.  Not  as  marginal,  by  any  means,  as  the  dolichocephalic 
types,  its  strongest  representation  is  nevertheless  in  the  extreme 
southeast,  and  almost  everywhere  it  seems  to  have  given  ground 
to  peoples  of  Alpine  type. 

This  latter  is  clearly  enough  the  dominant  element  in  the 
Asiatic  population  of  the  present  day.  Its  centres  of  greatest 
strength  lie  at  the  western  and  eastern  ends  of  the  great  plateau 
crescent  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  whole  eastern  part  of  the  conti- 
nent, but  throughout  the  whole  of  the  rest  of  the  plateau  area  it 
is  probably  one  of  the  most  important  single  types.  Four  regions 
only  seem  to  have  escaped  the  overwhelming  influence  of  these 
Alpine  folk — the  extreme  northwest,  Arabia,  India,  and  Farther 
India.  Yet  even  in  the  southern  borderlands  its  mark  lies  on 
the  people,  for  in  Arabia  it  holds  the  south;  in  India  it  has  pene- 
trated along  the  western  coast  and  somewhat  in  the  north;  while 
the  drive  of  the  Siamese  down  the  valley  of  the  Mekong  has 
brought  into  the  heart  of  Farther  India  a considerable  element 
of  this  conquering  type,  which  from  the  southeast  of  the  conti- 
nent has  passed  on  into  the  island  world  of  the  Pacific.  Lastly, 
in  its  movement  toward  the  northeast  it  has  passed  by  way  of 
Bering  Strait  into  America,  supplying  thus  to  the  New  World 
the  dominating  element  in  its  population. 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 
I.  Arabia,  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Mesopotamia 

That  portion  of  the  Asiatic  continent  which  lies  to  the  south 
and  west  of  the  western  plateaus,  and  which  includes  the  great 
peninsula  of  Arabia,  together  with  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Meso- 
potamia, has  in  its  geography,  its  environment,  and  its  racial 
history  a certain  unity.  Arabia  is  primarily  an  arid  plateau,  ris- 
ing abruptly  from  the  Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean  and  sloping 
gradually  toward  the  northeast,  in  the  direction  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  Mesopotamia,  and  eastern  Syria.  The  elevation  of  its 
western  margin  is  continued  northward  by  the  narrow  belt  of 
upland  and  mountain  country  which  fringes  the  eastern  end  of 
the  Mediterranean,  to  the  ranges  of  the  Taurus  on  the  southern 
border  of  the  Anatolian  plateau.  Except  for  a very  narrow  belt 
along  its  western  and  southern  margin  and  in  occasional  oases  in 
the  interior,  the  whole  area  is  arid  or  desert.  From  the  earliest 
period  down  to  the  present  the  bulk  of  the  population  have  been 
pastoral  nomads,  except  where,  adjacent  to  the  southern  and 
western  shores,  and  in  the  rich  irrigated  lands  of  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley,  it  was  possible  for  city-dwelling,  agricultural, 
and  trading  peoples  to  thrive. 

In  Babylonia  and  the  region  about  the  head  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  a great  civilization  grew  up,  whose  beginnings  go  back  cer- 
tainly to  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  millennium  B.  C.,  and 
which  rivalled  that  of  Egypt  in  character  and  antiquity.  Along 
the  south  Arabian  coast  the  old  civilization  of  the  Sabaean  and 
Minaean  kingdoms  goes  back  at  least  to  the  beginning  of  the  first 
millennium  B.  C.,  while  in  Palestine  the  arrival  of  the  Hebrews 
must  be  placed  nearly  a thousand  years  earlier.  Yet  in  spite  of 
the  cultural  and  historical  importance  of  this  southwestern  cor- 

251 


252 


ASIA 


ner  of  the  continent,  we  know  next  to  nothing  of  the  racial  char- 
acter of  either  its  ancient  or  modern  inhabitants. 

Of  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  Sumerians,  among  whom 
developed  the  parent  civilization  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  region, 
we  know  nothing  except  what  can  be  most  precariously  deduced 
from  a study  of  their  sculptured  likenesses.  Neither  of  them  nor 
of  the  succeeding  Babylonian  or  Assyrian  peoples  have  we  as  yet 
any  skeletal  remains.  Hamy1  has  endeavored  to  show  that  on 
the  basis  of  sculptured  heads  and  bas-reliefs  the  ancient  non- 
Semitic  Sumerians  were  brachycephalic,  whereas  the  Semitic- 
speaking peoples,  who  already  at  the  earliest  known  historical 
period  were  acquiring  dominance  in  Babylonia,  were  on  the  con- 
trary dolichocephalic.  We  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  Su- 
merians were  an  immigrant  people  in  Babylonia,  having  come 
from  the  borders,  at  least,  of  the  Iranian  Plateau,  where  the 
ancient  population  was  almost  certainly  brachycephalic;  so  that 
Hamy’s  results  accord  at  least  with  all  that  we  know  or  can  con- 
jecture of  the  racial  history  of  this  region.  That  all  of  the 
Semitic-speaking  folk  here  were,  on  the  other  hand,  dolichoce- 
phalic, may  be  doubted,  since  it  is  very  probable  that  Alpine  or 
Palae-Alpine  influences  had  before  this  made  themselves  felt  in 
southern  Arabia,  derived  doubtless  from  the  Iranian  Plateau, 
whence  the  Sumerians  themselves  somewhat  later  came. 

The  most  ancient  crania2  from  the  whole  region  are  four  of 
Seleucidian  age  found  at  Babylon,  which  show  that  Mediterra- 
nean and  Caspian  types  were  in  the  large  majority,  the  Alpine 
making  up  the  remainder.  Of  roughly  the  same  age  are  certain 
Phoenician  crania  from  Sidon,3  which  in  marked  contrast  are 
strongly  brachycephalic,  and  probably  in  the  main  of  Alpine 
type.  From  Palmyra  in  the  Syrian  deslert,4  we  have  a half  dozen 
skulls,  dating  from  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era, 
which,  like  the  earlier  ones  from  Babylon,  show  the  predomi- 
nance of  dolichocephalic,  probably  Mediterranean  factors.  This 
prevalent  long-headedness  is  also  stated  to  be  true  of  the  great 


1 Hamy,  1907. 

3 Bertholon,  1892. 


2 Hamy,  1884. 

4 Busk,  1871-72,  1874-75. 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


253 


series  of  ancient  Hebrew  crania  excavated  by  the  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration Fund,1  no  study  of  which,  however,  has  yet  been 
published;  it  is  also  true  of  various  small  series  of  crania  of  con- 
siderable although  uncertain  age,  coming  from  northern  Arabia 
and  Palestine.2 

To  draw  satisfactory  conclusions  from  such  inadequate  and 
scattered  data  is  impossible,  but  it  is  perhaps  safe  to  infer  that 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  first  millennium  B.  C.  the  occupants  of 
this  whole  territory  were  predominantly  of  dolichocephalic  types, 
the  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  being  in  the  majority,  but  that 
in  the  south  and  in  the  northwest  brachycephalic  influences  had 
already  made  themselves  more  or  less  strongly  felt,  being  in  the 
main  of  Alpine  type,  and  derived  from  the  uplands  of  the  Ana- 
tolian and  Iranian  plateaus.  For,  just  as  in  the  earliest  period, 
we  have  Sumerians  coming  down  from  the  uplands  to  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  delta,  so  in  the  northwest  we  have  the  penetration 
of  Hittites  and  other  brachycephalic  peoples  from  the  Anatolian 
plateau  into  northern  Syria. 

The  modern  population  of  the  whole  area  is  in  the  main  of 
Semitic  speech,  and  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  two 
groups:  the  sedentary,  agricultural  peasantry  or  Fellahin,  and 
the  city  dwellers;  and  the  nomadic  or  semi-nomadic  Bedouin. 
The  former  are  concentrated  for  the  most  part  in  the  coastal 
areas,  and  along  the  rivers  or  in  the  irrigable  oases;  the  latter  are 
widely  scattered  throughout  the  more  arid  interior.  In  Syria3 
the  two  groups  seem  to  differ  radically,  for  here  the  urban  popu- 
lation and  the  agricultural  peasantry  of  the  Syrian  uplands, 
together  with  the  Ansarie,4  Metouali,6  etc.  are  predominantly 
brachycephalic,  the  Alpine  type  being  dominant,  with  the  Palae- 
Alpine  as  an  important  minority.  On  the  other  hand,  the  nomad 
Bedouin  are  primarily  dolichocephalic,  although  in  varying  de- 
gree.6 The  dominance  of  the  brachycephalic  types  among  the 
Fellahin,  however,  seems  to  disappear  toward  the  south,  since 


‘Seligman,  1917.  2 Seligman,  op.  cit.  3 Huxley,  1905. 

4Chantre,  1882.  6 £hantre,  1895  b. 

6 A.  M.  N.  H.;  Seligman,  1917;  von  Luschan,  1911, 


254 


ASIA 


those  of  Samaria  are  strongly  dolichocephalic,  and  the  Samaritan 
crania  from  Nablus1  show  a large  predominance  of  Caspian  and 
Mediterranean  types.  Still  farther  south  in  Palestine,  the  Ara- 
bic-speaking peasant  population  also  shows  similar  characteris- 
tics.2 They,  as  well  as  the  Samaritans,  are  tall  (174  cm.),  in 
skin  color  comparable  to  the  peoples  of  southern  Europe,  and, 
although  not  Jews,  have  a large  proportion  of  what  is  commonly 
known  as  the  “ Semitic”  or  “Jewish”  nose.  A small  series  of 
Bedouin  crania  shows  that  among  them  the  Mediterranean  type 
is  that  most  strongly  represented,  the  Caspian  taking  second 
place;  and  a comparison  with  the  Samaritan  crania  brings  out 
the  fact  that  while  both  have  about  the  same  proportion  of  Cas- 
pian factors,  the  Mediterranean  elements  are  twice  as  numerous 
in  the  Bedouin  as  among  the  sedentary  peoples  of  Samaria. 

For  Arabia  we  have  data  only  for  parts  of  the  Red  Sea  coast 
and  the  southern  corners  of  the  peninsula.  These  data  from 
measurements  on  the  living  show  that  while  in  the  Sinai  penin- 
sula the  Bedouin  are  predominantly  dolichocephalic,3  in  the  Hed- 
jaz4  these  and  the  brachycephalic  factors  are  evenly  balanced, 
with  indications  that  part,  at  least,  of  the  dolichocephalic  fac- 
tors are  platyrrhine,  and  derived  probably  from  Negro  slaves. 
Farther  toward  the  south,  in  Yemen,5  the  balance  is  turned 
decisively  the  other  way,  and  among  the  Arabs  here  brachyce- 
phalic factors  (apparently  Alpine  in  type)  are  in  large  majority. 
And  this  holds  true  not  only  for  the  sedentary  population,  but 
also  for  the  Sheher  Bedouin  far  back  of  Aden,6  and  is  again  re- 
vealed in  the  people  of  Maskat,6  at  the  southeast  corner  of  the 
peninsula.  We  seem  to  have,  thus,  in  passing  from  the  northern 
and  western  to  the  southern  and  eastern  portion  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula,  a far-reaching  modification  of  the  population,  which  is 
predominantly  dolichocephalic  (Mediterranean  and  Caspian)  in 
the  one  and  predominantly  brachycephalic  (Alpine)  in  the  other. 
The  origin  of  this  apparently  Alpine  factor  in  southern  Arabia  is 


1 A.  M.  N.  H. 

8 Giovanozzi,  1904;  Chantre,  1904. 

* Mochi,  1907;  Leys,  1913. 


8 Weissenberg,  1910. 
4 Mochi,  1907. 

8 Leys,  op.  oil. 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


255 


obscure.  We  must  probably  seek  its  sources  in  the  Iranian  Pla- 
teau, whence  it  may  have  crossed  the  Persian  Gulf  to  Oman  and 
spread  thence  along  the  coasts.  As  to  the  period  of  its  coming 
we  know  nothing,  except  that  from  the  African  evidence  it  could 
hardly  have  come  very  early,  and  the  conjecture  may  be  haz- 
arded that  the  movement  of  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  peoples  into 
southern  Arabia  was  perhaps  in  part  due  to  the  invasion  of  the 
Iranian  Plateau  in  the  second  millennium  B.  C.  by  the  Indo- 
European  Kassites  (who  conquered  Babylonia  at  this  period)  and 
the  ancestors  of  the  later  Hindus.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that 
there  is  clearly  some  Negroid  mixture  in  the  population  of  the 
southern  coastal  districts  of  Arabia.  Whether  this  is  to  be  at- 
tributed to  the  influence  of  African  slaves,  either  recently  or  as 
far  back  as  the  period  of  the  Sabaean  and  Minaean  kingdoms,  or 
is  evidence  of  a very  ancient  stratum  of  Negroid  peoples,  con- 
necting those  of  Africa  with  those  formerly  living  on  the  north- 
ern shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  still  dominant  throughout  all 
southern  India,  it  is,  in  the  absence  of  adequate  data,  impossible 
to  say. 

In  stature  the  modern  population  of  the  whole  area  seems  to 
grade  from  short  in  the  south  to  taller  in  the  north.  The  south- 
ern Arabs  from  Maskat  around  to  Yemen  are  slightly  under 
medium  height,  the  shortest  being  the  round-headed  Sheher 
Bedouin,  who  average  only  about  161  cm.  In  the  Hedjaz  and 
among  the  Bedouin  of  Sinai  the  stature  is  slightly  over  medium 
culminating  in  the  Fellahin  of  Samaria  with  an  average  stature 
of  174  cm.,  only  to  decrease  again  somewhat  among  the  people 
of  northern  Syria.  In  pigmentation  the  whole  population  is 
everywhere  strongly  brunet,  and  it  is  only  in  parts  of  northern 
Syria  that  a small  proportion  of  blond  types  appears.  An  Arab 
of  the  northern  or  dolichocephalic  type  is  shown  on  Plate  XVIII, 
Fig.  1. 

It  will  have  been  noticed,  perhaps,  that  nothing  has  been 
said  here  in  regard  to  the  Jewish  population.  The  information 
which  we  have  on  this  question  will  be  found  presented  and 
discussed  in  the  chapter  on  the  Jews,  in  the  section  on  Europe. 


256 


ASIA 


A word  or  two  may,  however,  be  said  here  in  regard  to  the 
island  of  Cyprus,  lying  off  the  coast  of  northern  Syria.  The 
material  collected  here  by  Buxton1  is  of  great  interest,  and  shows 
that  in  the  Bronze  Age  tombs  at  Lapithos,  on  the  northern 
coast,  the  brachycephalic  factors  slightly  outweigh  the  dolichoce- 
phalic, if  both  sexes  are  taken  together.  If  the  males  are  con- 
sidered apart  from  the  females,  however,  it  appears  that  whereas 
the  latter  are  brachycephalic,  the  former  are  strongly  dolicho- 
cephalic, and  largely,  it  would  seem,  of  the  Caspian  type.  The 
females,  moreover,  seem  to  show  traces  of  some  Mongoloid  in- 
fluence. The  few  crania  of  the  Iron  Age  and  later  appear  to  be 
mainly  Mediterranean.  The  abundant  data  on  the  living  (from 
which  as  far  as  possible  all  Turks  were  excluded)  indicates  that 
the  leptorrhine,  brachycephalic  forms  (probably  Alpine)  are 
everywhere  in  the  majority,  the  platyrrhine,  brachycephalic 
types  being  secondary  and  the  dolichocephalic  element  being  in 
the  main  probably  Mediterranean.  The  two  round-headed  types, 
however,  differ  interestingly  in  their  local  distribution.  For  the 
Alpine  is  relatively  most  important  in  the  east,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Famagusta,  while  the  Palae- Alpine  is  most  abundant  on  the 
northern  coast,  which  is  the  most  isolated  portion  of  the  island, 
and  this  latter  may  therefore  be  considered  to  be  the  older  ele- 
ment in  the  population. 

II.  India 

There  are  few  portions  of  the  Asiatic  continent  which  present 
more  clearly  cut  natural  frontiers  than  India.  The  stupendous 
wall  of  the  Himalayas,  swinging  in  a great  arc  some  1,500  miles 
in  length,  guards  the  north;  to  the  south  lies  the  sea;  on  the  west 
the  broken  ranges  forming  the  escarpment  of  the  Iranian  Pla- 
teau, limit  the  featureless  arid  lowlands  of  the  Indus  valley  from 
Peshawur  to  Karachi;  and  on  the  east  the  mountains  along  the 
Burmese  frontier  serve  to  mark  the  edge  of  India  in  this  direction. 
The  whole  area  of  India  may  be  divided  into  two  portions  geo- 

1 Buxton,  1920. 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


257 


graphically,  a northern  and  a southern.  The  former  comprises 
the  confluent  alluvial  plains  of  the  Indus,  Ganges,  and  Brahma- 
putra Rivers;  the  latter  the  peninsular  plateau  of  the  Deccan. 
Each  of  these  has  played  a different  part  in  the  racial  history  of 
the  country. 

Of  the  racial  characteristics  of  the  ancient  peoples  of  the  In- 
dian area  we  are  still  almost  totally  ignorant.  The  only  crania 
of  any  antiquity  which  have  been  described  are  a few  from  Tine- 
velly,  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  peninsula.  They  seem 
to  indicate  the  presence  of  a people  dominantly  dolichocephalic, 
platyrrhine,  and  strongly  prognathic,  i.  e.,  clearly  Negroid,  as 
early  perhaps  as  the  first  millennium  B.  C. 

In  dealing  with  the  living  population  of  India  we  at  once 
come  face  to  face  with  a condition  peculiar  to  this  area,  and  one 
which  complicates  the  problems  to  be  solved,  i.  e.,  the  caste  sys- 
tem. The  people  of  India  are  divided  into  two  unequal  sections, 
a smaller,  comprising  the  Mohammedans  and  many  small  groups 
of  more  or  less  primitive  aboriginal  folk  who  are  “casteless”  in 
that  they  are  outside  the  system;  and  a larger,  which  is  subdi- 
vided into  a multitude  of  different  castes,  each  of  which  has  its 
definite  rank  and  status  in  the  community,  holds  itself  more  or 
less  rigidly  aloof  from  all  the  others,  and  has,  at  least  theoreti- 
cally, its  own  trade  or  occupation.  With  the  origin  of  the  many 
castes,  whose  members  may  be  scattered  all  over  India,  we  are 
not  for  the  moment  concerned,  although  later  the  question  of 
how  far  the  various  caste  groups  show  actual  racial  differences 
will  have  to  be  considered.  For  the  present  it  is  merely  neces- 
sary to  note  that  the  caste  group  is  the  dominant  Indian  unit, 
and  that  with  few  exceptions  all  existing  data  have  been  collected 
on  this  basis. 

In  attempting  to  analyze  the  complex  population  of  India 
into  its  several  racial  elements,  and  to  reconstruct  tentatively 
the  history  of  its  growth,  we  may  well  begin  with  the  people  of 
the  northern  plains,  since  from  them  the  great  mass  of  our  data 
is  derived.1  Starting,  then,  in  the  west,  and  basing  conclu- 

1 Risley,  1892,  1915;  Chanda,  1916;  Kitts,  1890-93. 


258 


ASIA 


sions  in  the  first  place  on  the  measurements  of  the  living  (cranial 
material  being  very  scanty),  it  appears  that  the  population  of 
the  Punjab  and  the  larger  part  of  Rajputana  is  marked  by  a 
considerable  homogeneity.  Characteristically  tall,  they  attain 
in  some  cases,  such  as  that  of  the  Sikhs,  a stature  averaging  172 
cm.  In  skin  color  there  is  a fairly  wide  variation,  although  all 
but  the  lower  castes  are  quite  light-colored,  individuals  of  high 
caste  being  comparable  with  a south  Italian,  while  some  may 
almost  be  called  fair.  The  hair  is  usually  straight  or  wavy  and 
dark,  as  are  the  eyes.  Regardless  of  caste,  the  population  is 
dominantly  dolichocephalic,  with  narrow,  often  aquiline  noses. 
This  leptorrhine,  dolichocephalic  form  is  in  all  castes  the  largest 
factor,  ranging  from  45  per  cent  among  the  low-caste  Chuhra  to 
75-85  per  cent  among  the  Rajputs,  Sikhs,  and  Gujars.  The  por- 
trait of  the  Sikh  given  on  Plate  XVIII,  Fig.  2,  may  be  taken  as 
typical  of  this  group.  A platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  element  is 
also  present,  however,  being  strongest  in  the  lower-caste  groups. 
Brachy cephalic  factors  are  in  the  small  minority  except  among  the 
Pathans  of  the  western  border  country,  where  the  narrow-nosed, 
presumably  Alpine  type  is  present  to  the  extent  of  nearly  20  per 
cent.  To  the  southward,  in  Sind  and  Cutch,  brachycephalic 
factors  rapidly  increase,  but  here  the  Alpine  is  mixed  with  a con- 
siderable proportion  of  Palae-Alpine. 

As  we  pass  eastward  from  the  Punjab  to  the  Ganges  valley, 
striking  changes  take  place.  The  stature  diminishes,  the  skin 
color  grows  notably  darker,  and  the  hair  becomes  more  wavy 
or  even  curly.  The  head-form  still  remains  strongly  dolicho- 
cephalic, but  analysis  of  the  measurements  reveals  a significant 
change  in  the  racial  types  involved.  Whereas  in  the  Punjab  the 
leptorrhine  forms  were  in  the  large  majority,  and  Negroid  platyr- 
rhine forms  present  in  small  proportion  only,  in  the  Ganges  val- 
ley the  latter  become,  with  few  exceptions,  dominant,  the  Cas- 
pian-Mediterranean  types  dropping  to  second  place.  The  rela- 
tive importance  of  the  platyrrhine  forms  varies  both  locally  and 
in  the  different  castes.  Thus,  in  the  United  Provinces  it  ranges 
from  30  per  cent  to  70  per  cent,  in  Chota  Nagpore  from  50  per 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


259 


cent  to  80  per  cent,  in  Behar  from  20  per  cent  to  60  per  cent, 
and  in  Bengal  from  10  per  cent  to  80  per  cent.  Similar  wide 
differences  are  found  in  the  various  castes.  Thus,  in  the  Brah- 
min and  Bhuinar  castes  of  the  United  Provinces  it  amounts  to 
only  about  30  per  cent,  the  Caspian-Mediterranean  types  being 
in  these  two  castes  in  the  majority.  In  the  Kayasth  and  Tharu 
castes,  of  lower  although  still  respectable  rank,  the  Negroid 
types  increase  to  50  per  cent,  while  in  the  Chamar  and  Koiri,  of 
low  status,  they  rise  nearly  to  70  per  cent.  In  the  highlands  of 
Chota  Nagpore  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  Bengal,  where  several 
groups  of  “casteless”  aboriginal  peoples,  such  as  the  Munda, 
Korwa,  Male,  Mai  Paharia,  etc.,  are  found,  the  proportion  of 
platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  factors  almost  reaches  80  per  cent ! 
Generalizing  the  detailed  variations,  it  may  be  said  that  as  we 
pass  from  west  to  east  down  the  Ganges  valley,  the  platyrrhine, 
dolichocephalic  forms  increase  in  relative  proportion,  attaining 
their  maximum  among  the  “casteless”  aboriginal  and  semi- 
aboriginal tribes  of  the  Chota  Nagpore  district,  and  then  falls  off 
somewhat  farther  toward  the  east. 

This  striking  variation  in  the  relative  importance  of  the 
Negroid  forms,  both  locally  and  according  to  caste,  is  not  the 
only  result  of  the  detailed  analysis,  for  an  equally  significant 
change  in  the  factor  of  secondary  strength  also  becomes  appar- 
ent. For  while  in  the  United  Provinces  in  most  castes  the  Cas- 
pian-Mediterranean types  were  secondary,  as  we  pass  eastward 
the  importance  of  these  decreases  and  they  are  ultimately  re- 
placed by  other  factors,  until  in  Bengal  only  three  out  of  eighteen 
castes  for  which  we  have  data  still  show  these  leptorrhine,  doli- 
chocephalic forms  in  second  place.  The  forms  thus  replacing  the 
Caspian-Mediterranean  are  two,  the  Alpine  and  Palae- Alpine.  In 
the  Chota  Nagpore  district  it  is  the  latter  which  assumes  the 
position  of  secondary  importance,  and  it  is  this  factor  which 
serves  to  differentiate  two  of  the  best-known  peoples  of  this 
area,  the  Oraon  and  the  Santal.  Both  show  a strong  dominance 
of  the  Negroid  types  (ca.  60  per  cent),  but  whereas  the  secon- 
dary factor  in  the  former  is  still  the  Caspian-Mediterranean,  in 


260 


ASIA 


the  latter  it  is  the  Palae-Alpine.  In  Behar,  while  in  some  cases 
the  Palae-Alpine  takes  second  place,  in  others,  such  as  in  the 
Dosadh  and  Kurmi  castes,  this  is  held  by  the  Alpine  instead. 
In  Bengal  proper  the  importance  of  this  latter  type  becomes 
more  pronounced.  Stated  in  general  terms,  the  importance  of 
the  Palae-Alpine  type  increases  eastward  along  the  southern 
borders  of  the  Ganges  valley,  culminating  in  Chota  Nagpore, 
whereas  the  Alpine  type  becomes  more  prominent  along  the 
northern  border,  reaching  its  greatest  strength  in  northeastern 
Bengal,  where  it  actually  is  dominant  in  certain  castes,  such  as 
the  Brahmin  and  Kayasth. 

The  explanation  of  the  increasing  part  played  by  the  Alpine 
type  is  to  be  found  mainly  in  the  character  of  the  population  of 
the  southern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas.  In  Nepal  and  Sikkhim 
are  a series  of  peoples  or  tribes,  speaking  languages  allied  to  the 
Tibetan  and  Burmese  and  displaying  in  their  physical  features 
precisely  those  characteristics  whose  growth  in  importance  has 
been  noted  among  the  Indo-European  speaking  population  of  the 
Ganges  valley.  Short  in  stature  (the  majority  averaging  below 
160  cm.),  slightly  yellowish  in  complexion,  with  straight  black 
hair  and  occasionally  showing  the  Mongoloid  eye,  the  Nepal- 
ese, Lepcha,  Limbu,  Khambu,  etc.,  present  a strong  contrast 
to  the  people  of  the  Gangetic  plain.  All  are  strongly  brachyce- 
phalic,  and  with  the  single  exception  of  the  Gurung  have  the 
Alpine  type  preponderant.  As  secondary  factors  some,  like  the 
Khambu,  Limbu,  Bhutani,  and  the  people  of  Sikkhim,  have 
the  Palae-Alpine  type;  the  Gurung,  on  the  other  hand,  have  this 
latter  type  dominant,  with  the  Caspian  as  secondary,  a condition 
which  will  be  found  to  be  of  considerable  frequency  in  Assam 
and  the  Burmese  border,  to  which  region  we  may  next  turn. 

This  extreme  eastern  portion  of  the  northern  Indian  area  in- 
cludes both  the  wide  Brahmaputra  valley  and  the  rugged  hill 
country  lying  north,  south,  and  east  of  this,  as  far  as  the  Bur- 
mese border.  In  contrast  to  the  peoples  of  the  Indo-Gangetic 
plain,  who  speak  Indo-European  languages,  the  tribes  of  Assam 
and  the  Burma  frontier  with  but  one  important  exception  speak 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


261 


languages  belonging  to  the  Tibeto-Burman  stock.  The  Khasi, 
living  in  the  hills  in  the  vicinity  of  Shillong,  are  linguistically  an 
outlier  of  the  Mon-Khmer  stock,  whose  main  area  of  distribu- 
tion lies  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  continent. 

From  the  racial  point  of  view  the  peoples  of  this  area  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups,  one  of  which  shows  a preponderance  of 
dolichocephalic  factors,  the  other  being  primarily  brachycephalic.1 
The  former  occupies  a continuous  area,  and  includes  nearly  all 
the  peoples  of  the  Brahmaputra  valley,  together  with  most  of 
those  in  the  hill  country  to  the  south  and  the  foot-hills  of  the 
Himalayas  on  the  north.  The  more  important  tribes  in  this 
group  include  the  Abor,  Miri,  Dafla,  Kohita,  Garo,  Sinteng, 
Manipuri,  Kuki,  and  some  of  the  Naga  tribes.  In  all  the  platyr- 
rhine,  dolichocephalic  types  are  in  the  majority,  the  leptorrhine 
factors  being,  except  among  the  Rengma  Naga,  present  merely 
as  a trace.  In  most  instances  the  Palae-Alpine  is  the  element  of 
second  importance,  amounting  in  some  cases  to  as  much  as  40 
per  cent.  In  stature  all  are  below  medium,  the  figures  ranging 
from  an  average  of  157  cm.  for  the  Khasi  to  164  cm.  or  over 
among  the  Angami  Naga.  The  hair  is  straight  or  wavy,  some- 
times curly;  the  eyes  in  some  cases  show  the  Mongolian  fold. 

The  brachycephalic  group,  on  the  other  hand,  occupies  a 
broken  area,  and  includes  the  Tipra,  Magh,  and  Chakma  in  Tip- 
perah  in  the  south,  and  the  Mikir,  the  Ao  and  Serna  Nagas,  and 
the  Ahom  of  the  hill  country  and  Brahmaputra  valley.  In  this 
group  it  is  the  Pake-Alpine  type  which  is  present  in  greatest 
strength,  rising  in  the  case  of  the  Chakma  to  over  65  per  cent. 
In  the  Mikir,  Khasi,  and  Tipra  the  factor  of  secondary  impor- 
tance is  the  platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic — the  Negroid  types  so 
prominent  in  the  Ganges  valley  further  west.  In  the  Ahom,  Ao 
Naga,  Magh,  and  Chakma  it  is  the  Alpine  type  which  appears  in 
second  place.  In  stature  the  brachycephalic  group  shows  a ten- 
dency toward  shortness  compared  with  the  other  group. 

To  the  conclusions  derived  from  the  measurements  of  the 
living  may  now  be  added  those  derived  from  a study  of  the  all 

1 Waddell,  1900;  Hutton,  1921;  Dixon,  1922. 


262 


ASIA 


too  scanty  cranial  data.1  This  relates  almost  wholly  to  the 
lower  castes  for  obvious  reasons.  It  corroborates  in  general  the 
results  already  arrived  at,  but  amplifies  and  corrects  these  in 
two  particulars,  showing  first  the  presence  with  the  Caspian 
type  of  a moderate  factor  of  Mediterranean  in  the  Punjab  region 
and,  second,  the  fact  that  the  bulk  of  the  platyrrhine,  dolicho- 
cephalic forms  present  are  in  most  cases  Proto-Australoid  and 
not  Proto-Negroid  in  type.  The  latter  appears  in  any  impor- 
tance only,  so  far  as  present  data  go,  among  the  more  truly  abo- 
riginal tribes  in  Chota  Nagpore,  where  it  equals  the  Pro  to- Aus- 
traloid. In  the  north  of  India  thus,  the  more  truly  Negroid 
factor  is  of  relatively  small  importance.  The  maps,  Plates  XIV 
to  XVII,  show  for  northern  India  all  that  we  know  at  present 
on  the  distribution  of  types. 

For  the  population  of  the  whole  of  southern  or  peninsular 
India  we  have  but  little  data  which  can  be  directly  compared 
with  that  from  the  north.2  This  is  the  more  to  be  regretted  in 
that  the  keys  to  many  of  the  problems  of  the  whole  area  are  to  be 
found  probably  in  the  south.  So  far  as  the  material  will  enable 
us  to  judge,  the  peoples  of  this  portion  of  India  may  be  divided 
into  four  groups.  The  first  comprises  the  so-called  “jungle 
tribes,”  timid  folk  of  primitive  culture,  living  in  scattered  units 
in  the  more  inaccessible  portions  of  the  western  Ghats  and  the 
mountainous  country  of  the  extreme  southwest.  The  second  in- 
cludes the  Toda  of  the  cool  uplands  of  the  Nilgiri  hills,  the  Nair, 
or  land-owning  aristocracy  along  the  Malabar  coast,  and  per- 
haps some  others.  The  third  group  occupies  a broad  strip  along 
the  western  coast,  from  Rajputana  south  to  Canara;  while  the 
fourth  and  last  includes  all  the  many  Dra vidian- speaking  peo- 
ples of  the  south  and  east.  For  central  India  there  are,  so  far 
as  I am  aware,  no  data  whatever. 

To  the  first  group  belong  the  Kadir,  Kanikar,  Kurumba,  Pal- 
liyan,  Paniyan,  etc.,  who  may  be  characterized  as  very  short, 

1 Charles,  1892,  1893;  Danielli,  1892;  Mantegazza,  1883;  Turner,  1901;  Gupte, 
1909. 

* Holland,  1901;  Jagor,  1879;  Lapicque,  1905;  Risley,  1893,  1915;  Schmidt,  1910; 
Thurston,  1896,  1909;  Turner,  1906. 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


263 


very  black-skinned  people,  with  strongly  curly  or  frizzly  hair, 
dominantly  dolichocephalic,  and  having  very  broad  noses  and 
often  thick,  Negroid  lips.  All  speak  languages  belonging  to  the 
Dravidian  stock.  In  the  absence  of  any  individual  measure- 
ments it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  types  present,  but  it  is 
probably  safe  to  assume  that  we  have  a large  majority  of  Proto- 
Negroid  elements,  mixed  with  Proto- Australoid  and  perhaps  a 
small  percentage  of  the  Palae-Alpine  type,  not  improbably  of  the 
Negrito  variety.  These  jungle  tribes  are  generally  regarded  as 
the  remnants  of  the  oldest  stratum  of  population,  who  have  been 
crowded  back  into  the  unfavorable  refuge  areas  which  they  now 
occupy.  An  example  of  this  aboriginal  stratum  is  given  in  Plate 
XVIII,  Fig.  3. 

Turning  next  to  the  fourth  group,  comprising  various  Tamil 
and  Telugu  speaking  folk  of  the  Dravidian  stock,  we  find  that 
they  are  somewhat  under  medium  stature,  with  very  dark  skins, 
and  wavy  or  strongly  curly  hair.  Unfortunately,  the  meagre 
data  published  on  their  head-form  are  rather  contradictory. 
Some  caste  groups,  such  as  the  Palli,  Parayan,  and  Vellalla,  ap- 
pear to  be  strongly  dolichocephalic,  with  only  a small  brachy- 
cephalic  factor;  others,  such  as  the  Balija,  Kapu,  and  Galla, 
show  brachycephalic  elements  in  much  stronger  proportions,  and 
in  some  groups  of  Tamils  these  almost  preponderate. 

The  third  group,  except  in  the  extreme  southern  portion 
where  Dravidian  speech  prevails,  speak  Indo-European  languages 
allied  to  those  of  the  Indo-Gangetic  plain.  Still  under  medium 
stature,  these  people  are,  especially  in  the  north  and  northwest, 
of  lighter  skin-color  than  the  two  preceding  groups,  and  in  head- 
form  show  large  brachycephalic  factors,  which  in  the  north  be- 
come actually  dominant.  It  seems  to  be  evident  from  Risley’s 
data  that  this  round-headed  element  is  in  the  main  Alpine  in 
type.  We  shall  not  go  far  wrong,  I think,  if  we  assume  that  the 
Maratthas  and  Gujratis,  together  with  the  Coorgs  and  other 
members  of  this  group,  are  in  the  main  a blend  in  varying  pro- 
portions of  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  types,  with  the  Proto-Aus- 
traloid and  Proto-Negroid. 


264 


ASIA 


Lastly,  we  come  to  the  second  group,  comprising  the  Toda 
and  the  Nair.  In  striking  contrast  with  all  other  peoples  of 
southern  India,  the  members  of  this  group  are  considerably 
above  medium  stature,  in  skin  color  sometimes  as  light  as  the 
fairest  in  the  Punjab,  and  have  hair  which  is  little  more  than 
wavy.  In  head-form  they  are  prevailingly  dolichocephalic  and 
leptorrhine,  so  that  we  have  here  apparently  a dominance  of  the 
Caspian-Mediterranean  types,  resembling  that  found  in  the  west- 
ern portions  of  northern  India.  The  minority  seems  mainly 
Proto- Australoid. 

Before  attempting  to  draw  from  the  foregoing  facts  a rough 
outline  of  the  racial  history  of  the  whole  of  India  we  must  glance 
at  the  peoples  of  Ceylon.  The  existing  population  is  divisible 
into  three  distinct  sections — the  Vedda,  the  Singhalese,  and  the 
Tamils.  The  first  now  survive  only  as  a tiny  remnant,  in  the 
southeastern  portion  of  the  island.  They  are  obviously  all  that 
remains  of  the  oldest  stratum  of  the  population,  and  have,  be- 
cause of  their  extremely  simple  culture,  long  aroused  the  inter- 
est of  anthropologists.  The  Vedda1  are  in  stature  short,  averag- 
ing only  about  155  cm.;  in  skin  color  they  are  dark,  but  usually 
lighter  than  the  darker  groups  of  the  south  Indian  population. 
The  hair  is  wavy  or  curly.  In  head-form  analysis  of  the  data 
shows  a very  large  majority  of  dolichocephalic  forms,  the  Proto- 
Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  being  present  in  nearly  equal  pro- 
portions, the  Caspian  type  being  present  as  a small  minority, 
while  of  brachycephalic  factors  there  is  hardly  a trace.  The 
Vedda  thus  are  comparable  with  the  Tamil  population  of  south- 
ern India,  with  the  brachycephalic  factors  left  out,  and  the 
Proto-Negroid  element  much  weakened. 

The  Singhalese2  are  in  sharp  contrast  with  the  Vedda.  Their 
stature  is  slightly  above  the  medium,  and,  with  a lighter  skin, 
they  have  a dominance  of  brachycephalic  factors,  which  seem  to 
be  mainly  Palae-Alpine,  the  minority  being  of  both  platyrrhine 
and  leptorrhine  dolichocephalic  forms.  The  Tamils,  who  form 

1 Sarasin,  1893;  Turner,  1901,  1906. 

2 Risley,  1893. 


Fig.  i.  Bedouin  Arab. 


Fig. 


Sikh. 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


265 


the  third  group,  have  already  been  discussed  in  speaking  of  the 
peoples  of  southern  India. 

From  all  the  preceding  facts  we  may  suggest  as  a working 
hypothesis  the  following  outline  of  the  racial  history  of  the  In- 
dian area.  The  underlying  oldest  stratum  of  the  whole  popula- 
tion is  a blend  of  Proto- Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types,  the 
former  probably  stronger  in  the  north,  the  latter  in  the  south. 
This  dark-skinned,  more  or  less  Negroid  population  was  once  in 
all  probability  spread  over  the  whole  Indian  region,  but  has  now 
largely  disappeared  in  the  west  and  northwest,  at  least  in  the 
castes  of  higher  rank.  Farther  eastward,  in  the  Ganges  valley, 
it  is  still  the  dominant  element  in  the  majority  of  the  people, 
particularly  in  the  case  of  the  remnants  of  aboriginal  tribes.  It 
is  in  southern  India  and  Ceylon,  however,  that  this  oldest  stratum 
is  most  clearly  in  evidence.  The  prognathism  often  characteris- 
tic of  the  Negroid  mixtures  in  Africa  is,  as  a rule,  little  developed 
in  India,  although  showing  among  some  of  the  jungle  tribes  and 
in  the  ancient  crania  from  Tinevelly. 

At  a period  as  yet  impossible  to  fix,  but  perhaps  as  early  as 
the  second  or  even  the  third  millennium  B.  C.,  this  early  popula- 
tion became  strongly  modified  by  the  intrusion  of  peoples  largely 
of  Palae-Alpine  type.  The  process  by  which  this  was  accom- 
plished is  still  wholly  a matter  of  conjecture.  That  in  the  south 
of  India  and  Ceylon  it  did  not  precede  the  Proto-Australoid- 
Proto-Negroid  blend,  seems  to  be  shown  by  its  absence  from  the 
Vedda  and  probably,  also,  the  jungle  tribes.  Similarly,  its  rela- 
tive absence  in  the  population  of  the  Ganges  valley  and  the 
Punjab  would  appear  to  render  doubtful  a direct  immigration 
from  the  north.  As  will  be  seen  in  discussing  the  people  of 
Burma  and  the  southeast  of  Asia,  this  Palae-Alpine  type  is  there 
present  in  great  strength,  so  that  the  possibility  of  an  eastern 
origin  at  once  suggests  itself.  It  has  been  shown  that  in  Assam 
and  eastern  Bengal  this  type  characterizes  certain  scattered  hill 
tribes,  and  is  strong  also  among  the  Khasi,  who  speak  a language 
strange  to  India  but  allied  to  those  of  the  southeast  of  the  con- 
tinent. It  is  therefore  tempting  to  explain  the  presence  of  the 


266 


ASIA 


brachycephalic  factor  in  the  Dravidian  population  of  southern 
India,  by  an  immigration  from  the  eastward,  around  the  head 
of  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  This  would  further  help  to  account  for 
the  now  recognized  remote  linguistic  relationship  between  the 
Munda-speaking  tribes  of  southwestern  Bengal  and  adjacent  ter- 
ritory and  the  Mon-Khmer  languages.  Until,  however,  we  have 
much  more  data,  particularly  early  cranial  material,  further 
speculation  in  this  direction  is  profitless.  A word  might  be  said, 
perhaps,  in  regard  to  the  possibility  of  a western  source  for  this 
brachycephalic  factor.  It  will  be  shown  on  a subsequent  page 
that  the  present  population  of  Baluchistan  is  predominantly 
Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine.  We  have  seen  that  a similar  factor  ex- 
tends southward  along  the  western  coast  of  India  as  far  as 
Canara.  In  the  early  part  of  the  second  millennium  B.  C.  we 
know  that  Indo-European  peoples  were  invading  the  plateau; 
would  it  be  too  precarious  to  suggest  that  this  may  have  led  to 
the  moving  of  some  of  the  older  brachycephalic  peoples  into  the 
region  of  the  Indus  delta,  and  so  spreading  down  the  west  Indian 
coast  ? If  this  explanation  be  admitted,  it  would  account  for  the 
isolated  Brahui,  speaking  a Dravidian  language  in  southern  Ba- 
luchistan, these  being  thus  the  rear-guards  of  the  ancient  move- 
ment. The  brachycephalic  immigrants  on  this  hypothesis  would 
have  imposed  their  Dravidian  speech1  upon  the  older  Negroid 
peoples  of  the  whole  of  the  south,  just  as  the  Indo-European 
immigrants  into  the  northwest  did  upon  the  peoples  of  the 
Ganges  valley. 

Whether  this  theory  is  substantiated  or  not,  it  is  at  any 
rate  clear  that  about  the  middle  of  the  second  millennium  B.  C. 
there  came  into  northwestern  India  a considerable  body  of  immi- 
grants, speaking  Indo-European  languages,  coming  in  from  Af- 
ghanistan and  also  probably  southward  along  the  Indus  valley. 
The  newcomers  were  tall  in  stature,  fair  of  skin,  and  were  a 
blend  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types,  the  former  being  in 
the  considerable  majority.  They  were  closely  allied  probably  in 
physical  characteristics  as  well  as  in  culture  with  the  Proto- 

1 Lapicque,  1905. 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


267 


Medes  and  Proto-Persians,  who  were  pressing  into  the  western 
portion  of  the  Iranian  Plateau  where  it  adjoined  the  Mesopo- 
tamian lowlands,  and  as  the  Kassites  conquered  and  held  Baby- 
lon for  several  centuries.  From  the  Punjab  and  parts  of  Raj- 
putana  the  older  stratum  of  aboriginal  Negroid  peoples  seem  to 
have  been  largely  expelled  by  these  immigrant  ancestors  of  the 
modern  Hindu,  although  in  the  lower  castes  to-day  this  ancient 
fundamental  stratum  still  makes  itself  felt.  As  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean Caspian-Mediterranean  invasion  made  its  way  down  the 
Ganges  valley,  its  impetus  and  strength  gradually  waned,  and 
instead  of  making  up  the  bulk  of  the  population,  as  it  did  in 
the  west,  it  formed  only  the  dominant  aristocracy,  impressing  its 
language  and  culture  upon  the  older  peoples,  and  in  the  course 
of  time  mixed  extensively  with  them.  So  that  to-day  the  lowest 
castes  in  the  Punjab  have  more  of  the  blood  of  the  Caspian- 
Mediterranean  immigrants  than  do  the  highest  castes  of  Bengal ! 
After  a time  this  immigrant  group  began  to  spread  southward 
until  they  had  pushed  their  conquests  to  the  tip  of  the  peninsula, 
and  invaded  and  conquered  Ceylon.  Of  this  long  period  of  ex- 
ploration and  conquest  the  echoes  are  preserved  in  the  great 
Indian  epics.  Yet,  extensive  as  were  the  political  and  cultural 
results  of  these  far-reaching  activities,  the  racial  influence  of  the 
conquerors  seems  to  have  been  small. 

In  connection  with  this  penetration  of  the  south  by  the  tall, 
light-skinned  northerners,  the  problem  of  the  Toda  and  Nair 
must  be  squarely  faced.  Considered  purely  from  the  standpoint 
of  their  physical  characteristics,  as  these  are  defined  in  the 
present  study,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  these  two  small 
groups,  which  differ  physically  so  strongly  from  all  their  neigh- 
bors, are  fragments  of  this  same  wave  of  Indo-European  con- 
querors, which  have  in  some  way  survived  in  relative  isolation, 
almost  unchanged  to  the  present  day.  It  will  be  objected  at 
once  that  the  Toda  show  little  trace  either  in  language  or  culture 
of  such  a parentage.  This  may  be  admitted  without,  however, 
denying  the  possibility  of  the  assumption.  The  loss  of  their 
language  (the  Toda  is  one  of  the  Dra vidian  languages)  is  not  by 


268 


ASIA 


any  means  an  insuperable  obstacle;  and  on  the  cultural  side  we 
know  that  the  original  immigrants  into  northwestern  India  were 
largely,  although  by  no  means  exclusively,  a pastoral  folk.  Thus 
the  abnormal  development  of  pastoral  life,  so  characteristic  of 
the  Toda,  might  well  occur  during  some  thousands  of  years  of 
isolation.  Space  is  lacking  for  the  adequate  discussion  of  the 
whole  question,  but  if  the  issue  be  faced  it  seems  that  unless 
some  such  solution  as  this  be  accepted  the  problem  must  remain 
unsolved. 

The  character  and  extent  of  the  influences  which  later  move- 
ments of  peoples  have  had  upon  the  racial  constitution  of  the 
Indian  population  may  be  dismissed  in  a few  words.  Commen- 
cing a century  or  so  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  and 
lasting  with  intervals  for  nearly  a thousand  years,  a series  of 
conquerors  and  invaders  entered  India  through  her  western 
gates.  With  few  exceptions,  all  came  directly  or  indirectly  from 
inner  Asia,  from  that  great  area  of  steppe  and  desert  lying  north 
of  the  belt  of  high  plateaus.  All  these  immigrants  and  conquer- 
ors, Sacae,  Huns,  Turks,  and  Mongols,  were  mixed  peoples;  all 
save  possibly  the  first  were,  however,  primarily  brachycephalic, 
with,  on  the  whole,  a dominance  of  Alpine  type.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  the  Mogul  (Mongol)  conquest  and  the  establishment  of 
the  Mogul  Empire  had  any  very  considerable  effect  upon  the 
racial  composition  of  India.  It  has  been  supposed,  however, 
that  some  of  the  earlier  invasions  exerted  a greater  influence, 
and  Risley  derives  the  brachycephalic  elements  along  the  west- 
ern coast  of  southern  India  from  the  Sacse  and  the  so-called  Indo- 
Scythian  kingdoms,  of  the  period  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  While  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  earlier  con- 
quests seem  to  have  involved  more  actual  colonization  and 
transference  of  peoples  than  the  later,  yet  it  may  be  doubted,  I 
think,  whether  the  final  result  of  the  whole  Indo-Scythian  domi- 
nation was  more  than  a very  thin  veneer  of  Alpine  elements  laid 
upon  a population  already  pretty  strongly  brachycephalic. 

A last  word  may  be  added  on  the  question  of  caste.  The 
origin  of  this  institution  has  long  been  a matter  in  dispute,  and 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


269 


it  has  been  denied  that  caste  differences  rested  upon  racial  dif- 
ferences. The  analysis  of  the  data  on  the  lines  here  followed 
makes  it  very  clear,  it  seems  to  me,  that  caste  groups  do  differ 
from  each  other  racially,  and  that  the  social  status  of  the  caste 
usually  bears  a direct  relation  to  the  racial  composition  of  its 
members. 


III.  Farther  India 

It  is  convenient  on  many  grounds  to  group  together  all  the 
peoples  of  southeastern  Asia,  including  within  this  area  Burma, 
the  Shan  States,  Siam,  French  Indo-China,  and  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula, together  with  the  Andaman  and  Nicobar  Islands  in  the 
Bay  of  Bengal.  Topographically  the  region  is  very  varied,  com- 
prising rugged  mountain  ranges,  which  rise  to  very  considerable 
heights  in  the  north;  plateaus,  like  that  of  Annam;  broad  allu- 
vial plains  like  much  of  Siam,  Cambodia,  and  parts  of  Tonkin; 
and  deep  canyon  valleys,  as  in  the  upper  courses  of  the  great 
rivers  of  the  area,  the  Irrawaddy,  Salwen,  Mekong,  and  Red. 
The  mountain  ranges  are  practically  continuous  with  the  high- 
lands and  mountains  of  eastern  Tibet  and  western  China,  and 
the  river  valleys  spread  out  like  the  ribs  of  a fan  from  this  part 
of  the  great  plateau  area,  and  with  the  intervening  ranges  have 
served  to  lead  and  guide  migratory  movement  southward  and 
southeastward  from  the  very  earliest  times. 

The  peoples  of  this  whole  area  are  divisible  on  the  basis  of 
language  into  three  main  groups.  One,  including  the  Burmese, 
Chin,  Kachin,  etc.,  and  probably  the  Karen,  are  classed  with  the 
Tibetans  to  form  the  Tibeto-Burman  stock;  a second,  compris- 
ing the  Shan,  Laos,  Siamese,  etc.,  belong  to  the  Thai  stock; 
whereas  the  Palaung,  Talaing,  Wa,  the  Mon  of  Burma,  and  an- 
cient Khmer  of  Cambodia,  many  modern  tribes  of  the  same 
country  and  the  wilder  peoples  of  Annam  and  Tonkin,  known 
collectively  as  Moi,  together  with  the  Semang  and  Sakai  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  all  belong  to  the  Mon-Khmer  stock.  The 
Tibeto-Burman  and  Thai,  with  the  Chinese,  form  one  great  group 
of  languages  with  various  important  features  in  common;  the 


270 


ASIA 


Mon-Khmer  stands  wholly  separate  and  apart  from  all  of  them, 
and  is,  on  the  other  hand,  related  in  a similar  general  fashion  to 
the  whole  group  of  Malayo-Polynesian  and  Melanesian  languages 
which  are  spread  over  most  of  the  whole  of  Oceania.  The  An- 
damanese people  finally  speak  a language  which  is  quite  inde- 
pendent and  unrelated  to  any  other  known. 

Archaeological  data  relating  to  the  ancient  population  of  Far- 
ther India  are  very  few.  In  Tonkin1  a few  crania,  presumably 
of  Neolithic  age,  have  been  found  in  caves.  They  show  the 
prevalence  of  dolichocephalic  factors,  which  are  apparently  a 
mixture  of  Caspian  and  Proto-Negroid  types  in  the  males,  the 
females  having  something  of  a brachycephalic  element.  The 
Cambodian  shell-heaps2  also  have  yielded  a number  of  crania,  of 
which,  however,  no  detailed  measurements  have  been  published. 
They  indicate  here  again  the  prevalence  of  dolichocephalic  types. 
Turner3  reports  on  certain  crania  which  are  dolichocephalic,  and 
derived  from  an  “ancient  cemetery”  in  upper  Burma,  but  the 
antiquity  of  these  must  be  much  less  than  that  of  the  specimens 
just  referred  to.  From  such  meagre  materials  all  that  can  be 
said  is  that  the  early  occupants  of  the  region  seem  everywhere 
to  have  been  long-headed. 

For  the  living  population  whose  characters  are  in  general 
sharply  in  contrast  with  this  older  stratum,  we  have  little  ana- 
lyzable  data  except  from  Burma4  and  the  Malay  Peninsula,6  as 
nothing  but  averages  are  given  for  the  whole  of  Indo-China.  In 
Burma  the  population  is  almost  everywhere  distinctly  below  the 
medium  stature,  the  Burmese  themselves  being  the  tallest,  with 
an  average  of  just  under  163  cm.,  while  the  Kachin,  Chin,  and 
Palaung  drop  almost  to  158  cm.  In  skin  color  there  is  wade 
variation,  some  of  the  western  and  northern  tribes,  such  as  the 
Chin,  Kachin,  and  especially  the  Wa  being  quite  dark  (the  lat- 
ter being  described  by  some  observers  as  almost  black  !),  whereas 
the  Palaung  and  some  of  the  Karen  often  have  a yellowish-rosy 

1 Verneau,  1909  a.  2 Verneau,  ibid.  3 Turner,  1899,  1908. 

4 Turner,  ibid.;  Gupte,  1909;  Tildesley,  1921;  Ethnographic  Survey  of  India,  1906. 

6Annandale,  1903;  Kloss,  1915;  Schlaginhaufen,  1907;  Martin,  1905;  Ko.ocker, 
1909;  Duckworth,  1902. 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


271 


complexion.  The  hair  is  generally  black  and  straight,  although 
brownish  shades  are  not  unknown,  and  occasionally  wavy  or 
even  strongly  curly  hair  is  to  be  seen.  The  eyes  are  usually 
dark,  but  hazel  or  even  grayish  eyes  are  occasionally  met  with 
among  the  wilder  tribes  of  the  northeastern  frontiers.  The  oc- 
currence of  the  Mongoloid  eye  is  more  common  in  the  north  than 
in  the  south. 

In  spite  of  these  variations  and  the  wide  diversity  in  language 
and  culture,  the  analysis  of  the  measurements  available  shows 
the  whole  population  to  be  surprisingly  uniform  so  far  as  the 
criteria  are  concerned  which  we  have  here  adopted.  Except  for 
the  Kachin,  some  of  the  Chin  and  the  so-called  “ Shan-taloke,” 
all  the  peoples  of  the  Burmese  area  show  a majority  of  the  platyr- 
rhine,  brachycephalic  factors,  which  we  know  from  cranial  ma- 
terial is  the  Palae-Alpine  type.  This  type  is  most  strongly  rep- 
resented among  the  Palaung,  Taking,  and  Karen  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Irrawaddy  valley.  In  all  of  these  brachycephalic 
peoples,  with  the  exception  of  the  Sgaw  Karen,  the  factor  of  sec- 
ondary importance  to  the  Palae-Alpine  is  a platyrrhine,  dolicho- 
cephalic one,  comparable  to  that  which  is  of  primary  impor- 
tance among  many  of  the  tribes  of  Assam.  In  the  absence  of 
cranial  material  except  from  the  Burmese,  we  cannot  determine 
the  type  most  prevalent,  although  the  Proto-Australoid  seems 
more  important  than  the  Proto-Negroid.  The  cranial  material 
from  the  Burmese  coincides  in  general  in  its  evidence  with  the 
measurements  on  the  living,  but  indicates  a much  more  consider- 
able proportion  of  Alpine  type,  which  on  the  basis  of  the  living 
population  is  present  only  as  a small  minority.  The  illustration 
given  on  Plate  XVIII,  Fig.  4,  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the 
Burmese  population. 

The  Kachin,  most  of  the  Chin,  and  the  rather  enigmatical 
Shan-taloke  are  characterized  by  a preponderance  of  dolicho- 
cephalic factors  which  are  primarily  platyrrhine,  while  the  Palae- 
Alpine  factors,  which  in  the  rest  of  the  population  were  domi- 
nant, are  here  secondary.  The  peoples  of  Burma  thus  show  very 
significant  relationships  with  those  of  the  area  of  Assam  to  the 


272 


ASIA 


west,  in  that  the  larger,  brachycephalic  section  resembles  the 
Khasi,  Tipra,  and  other  strongly  marked  brachycephalic  tribes 
there;  whereas  the  Kachin,  Chin,  and  Shan-taloke  are  compara- 
ble with  the  dominantly  dolichocephalic  tribes  who  occupied  the 
larger  portion  of  the  Assamese  territory.  In  other  words,  what 
is  the  dominant  and  most  wide-spread  population  in  Assam  is  in 
Burma  the  minority  group,  while  what  is  the  minority  in  Assam, 
in  Burma  constitutes  the  main  mass  of  the  population.  Since, 
now,  the  dominantly  dolichocephalic  group  in  Assam  is  appar- 
ently the  eastern  arm  of  a great  mass  of  more  strongly  character- 
ized Proto- Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  peoples  in  southern  and 
northeastern  India,  the  Kachin,  Chin,  etc.,  in  Burma  may  be 
regarded  as  a farther  extension  of  the  same  forms,  as  far  east  as 
the  very  borders  of  China.  The  Palae-Alpine,  brachycephalic 
group  in  Burma,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
parent  mass  from  which  the  much  feebler  representatives  of  the 
type  in  Assam  have  sprung. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  the  Andaman  and 
Nicobar  Islands  may  conveniently  be  considered  together,  since 
in  their  history  they  seem  to  be  more  or  less  closely  related.  We 
have  in  the  area  an  obviously  very  much  mixed  population, 
ranging  from  the  Pigmy-like  Andamanese  Negritos,  through  the 
Semang  and  Sakai,  to  the  modern  Malay.  We  may  best  begin 
by  a consideration  of  the  Andamanese,1  who  occupy  a remote 
and  isolated  area,  well  fitted  for  the  survival  of  very  early  types. 
Of  pigmy  stature,  averaging  only  148-149  cm.,  with  extremely 
black  skin  and  short  woolly  hair,  they  show  in  their  head-form 
a strong  majority  of  brachycephalic  factors,  the  Palae-Alpine 
amounting  in  the  males  to  about  60  per  cent,  and  in  the  females 
to  over  80  per  cent  of  the  total  factors  present.  The  dolicho- 
cephalic factors  are  in  the  main  Proto-Negroid,  and  both  sexes 
have  a small  proportion  of  the  Alpine  type.  The  Andamanese 
thus  seem  to  be  in  the  main  true  Negrito  Palae-Alpines,  with  a 
slight  admixture  of  Proto-Negroid  elements.  An  example  of  the 
Andamanese  type  is  given  on  Plate  XIX,  Fig.  1. 

Slower,  1878-80,  1884-85;  Jagor,  1875;  Turner,  1901;  Sullivan,  1921  b. 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


273 


If  the  Andamanese  present  a relatively  simple  group,  the 
Semang  and  Sakai  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  offer  a very  puzzling 
problem.  The  former,  who  live  in  small  communities  in  the 
more  inaccessible  parts  of  Perak,  etc.,  are  slightly  taller  than  the 
Andamanese  (averaging  about  152  cm.),  almost  as  dark-skinned, 
and  also  with  short,  woolly  hair.  The  data  in  regard  to  their 
head  form  are,  however,  very  contradictory.  The  measurements 
of  the  living  show  a predominance  of  dolichocephalic,  platyrrhine 
factors  among  the  males,  with  a strong  secondary  factor  amount- 
ing to  about  40  per  cent  of  brachycephalic,  platyrrhine  types. 
In  the  females  the  proportions  are  reversed,  the  brachycephalic 
types  amounting  to  over  80  per  cent.  The  cranial  data,  on  the 
other  hand,  show  both  sexes  to  be  dominantly  brachycephalic, 
i.  e.,  Palae-Alpine.  Under  the  circumstances  it  is  difficult  to 
know  which  data  to  accept,  yet  in  view  of  the  fact  (1)  that  the 
number  of  crania  known  is  extremely  small  and  (2)  that,  whereas 
the  certain  identification  of  the  crania  as  Semang  leaves  some- 
thing to  be  desired,  the  living  individuals  are  more  surely  iden- 
tified, it  seems  safer  to  accept  the  measurements  on  the  living 
as  the  surest  guide,  and  admit,  therefore,  a considerable  differ- 
ence between  the  sexes.  On  this  basis  the  Semang  would  repre- 
sent the  result  of  a mixture  between  a Negrito  Palae-Alpine  people 
similar  to  the  Andamanese,  and  a Proto-Australoid-Proto-Ne- 
groid  group,  the  females  retaining  more  clearly  than  the  males 
the  original  Negrito  element.  The  general  similarity  of  the 
Semang  to  the  Andamanese  is  shown  by  the  portrait  on  Plate 
XIX,  Fig.  2. 

The  Sakai,  who  are  mainly  found  in  southern  Perak  and 
northern  Selangor,  afford  an  even  more  complicated  puzzle.  On 
the  average  a little  taller  than  the  Semang  (average  about  153 
cm.)  they  are,  although  variable,  as  a rule  much  lighter-skinned, 
and  have  long,  wavy  or  curly  hair,  although  occasionally  indi- 
viduals with  close  curly  or  short  frizzly  hair  are  found.  A typical 
example  of  this  group  is  given  on  Plate  XIX,  Fig.  3.  The  data 
in  regard  to  head-form  derived  from  the  living  and  from  crania 
are,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Semang,  in  strong  contrast.  If  we 


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rely  on  the  former,  the  Sakai  are  predominantly  brachycephalic 
and  platyrrhine,  i.  e .,  Palae- Alpine,  with  a strong  secondary 
factor  of  the  Proto- Australoid  or  Proto-Negroid  types;  if  we 
rely  on  cranial  data,  they  are  on  the  contrary  predominantly 
of  these  two  latter  dolichocephalic  types,  with  but  a small  mi- 
nority of  brachycephalic  factors.  The  situation  is  rendered  still 
more  puzzling  by  the  fact  that  measurements  of  the  living  Sakai 
of  different  sections  of  the  country  show  equally  contradictory 
results,  some  being  dolichocephalic,  others  brachycephalic  ! The 
nomenclature  of  the  various  tribes,  both  Sakai  and  Semang,  is 
further  very  much  confused,  so  that  it  is  sometimes  uncertain 
whether  we  are  dealing  with  Sakai  or  Semang  or  mixed  groups. 
Obviously,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  or  lack  of 
knowledge,  no  valid  conclusions  can  be  drawn,  but  I would  sug- 
gest the  following  tentative  unravelling  of  the  puzzle. 

The  term  Sakai  (by  some  called  also  Senoi)  has  been  applied 
to  a series  of  very  variable  small  groups  of  people,  who  may  be 
regarded  as  having  originated  through  the  mixture,  in  varying 
proportions,  of  a predominantly  brachycephalic  people  compa- 
rable with  the  modern  Burmese  or  Pwo-Karen  and  the  Semang, 
who  were  themselves  the  result  of  a blending  of  a Negroid  peo- 
ple with  the  original  Negrito  stock.  The  dominant  brachy- 
cephalic factor  among  the  Sakai,  unlike  the  case  of  the  Semang, 
is  thus  mostly  derived  from  the  main,  or  non-Negroid,  Palae- Alpine 
type.  The  Nicobarese1  would  then  constitute  a rather  similar 
group,  differing  mainly  in  having  a considerable  Alpine  element, 
derived  probably  from  later  Malay  contacts.  It  is  probable 
that  the  Blandas  and  some  of  the  so-called  Jakun  of  the  southern 
portion  of  the  peninsula  also  belong  to  this  group,  although  in 
the  absence  of  any  detailed  measurements  the  question  cannot 
be  settled. 

Quite  another  stratum  of  population  is  represented  by  the 
Malay  peoples  of  the  peninsula.  Some,  such  as  those  of  south 
Perak  and  the  west  coast  farther  north,  together  probably  with 
the  Besisi  of  the  south,  represent  a relatively  old  stratum,  in  con- 

1 Weisbach,  1875. 


Fig. 


Sakai. 


PLATE  XIX. 


Fig.  4.  Chinese. 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


275 


trast  with  the  later  groups  which,  coming  from  Sumatra,  over- 
ran and  conquered  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula  only  a 
few  centuries  ago.  The  older  stratum  of  Malay-speaking  folk  is 
almost  exclusively  brachycephalic,  the  Palae-Alpine  type  being  in 
the  majority,  but  combined  with  a large  minority  of  the  Alpine, 
which  increases  in  strength  as  one  goes  southward,  and  among 
the  shore  and  island  folk  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  interior. 

If  the  various  assumptions  herein  made  are  accepted,  we  may 
sum  up  the  racial  history  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  very  briefly  as 
follows:  The  oldest  stratum  of  population  was  the  Negrito  Palae- 
Alpine,  which  survives  to-day  in  comparative  purity  only  among 
the  Andamanese.  With  this  was  later  blended  a taller  Negroid 
people,  of  mixed  Pro  to- Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types,  to 
form  the  Semang.  This  Negroid  population  is  still  represented 
among  some  of  the  hill-folk  in  Burma,  such  as  the  Chin,  is  more 
strongly  present  in  Assam,  and  dominant  in  the  greater  part  of 
India.  Subsequently  to  the  formation  of  the  Semang  a strong 
immigration  came  into  the  peninsula  from  the  north,  of  the  nor- 
mal Palas- Alpine  type,  of  which  perhaps  some  of  the  Karen  may 
be  regarded  as  the  last  survivors.  From  the  fusion  of  these 
with  the  older  Semang  was  derived  the  Sakai  and  some,  perhaps, 
of  the  Jakun;  the  later  and  less  modified  portions  of  this  wave 
forming  the  older  Malay  groups  of  to-day.  Finally,  in  recent 
times,  came  the  Menangkabau  Malays  from  Sumatra,  who  have 
overlain  the  earlier  groups  throughout  the  south. 

The  extreme  southeastern  corner  of  the  Asiatic  continent  is 
dominated  by  three  great  rivers,  the  Menam,  the  Mekong,  and 
the  Red.  The  deltas  and  lower  valleys  of  these  streams  are  rich 
agricultural  lands,  and  have  apparently  from  the  earliest  times 
been  contended  for  by  one  people  after  another.  The  low  pla- 
teau of  eastern  Siam  and  the  higher  uplands  and  mountains  of 
Laos,  Annam,  and  western  Tonkin  are  less  desirable,  and  into 
these  the  older  populations  have  been  driven  by  each  succeeding 
wave  of  newcomers,  or  else  quite  off  the  continent  into  the 
archipelago  of  Indonesia.  To  the  anthropologist  this  area  is  of 
very  great  interest,  since  into  it,  as  into  a huge  funnel,  have 


276 


ASIA 


come  from  the  north  a variety  of  peoples,  and  from  it  have  gone 
out  some,  at  least,  of  the  emigrants  who  have  peopled  the  island 
world  of  the  Pacific.  It  is  all  the  more  aggravating,  therefore,  to 
find  that  we  possess  little  information  of  real  value  in  regard  to 
the  physical  characteristics  of  any  of  its  present  inhabitants.1 

Linguistically  it  is  a complex  region.  The  Cham  and  some 
of  the  wilder  tribes  of  the  southern  Annamese  plateau,  such  as 
the  Rade,  Jarai,  etc.,  speak  languages  akin,  on  the  one  hand,  to 
the  Malayo-Polynesian,  and  on  the  other  to  the  Mon-Khmer,  to 
which  stock  belongs  the  speech  of  the  Cambodians  and  the  ma- 
jority of  the  hill-tribes,  known  generically  as  Moi,  Pnong,  or  Kha. 
The  Siamese,  Laos,  Thos,  etc.,  belong,  on  the  contrary,  to  the 
Thai  stock,  as  do  the  Shans  of  Burma  and  southern  China.  The 
Annamese  and  Tonkinese,  finally,  speak  languages  which  are 
either  derived  from  southern  Chinese  dialects  or  have  been  pro- 
foundly influenced  by  them. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  prehistoric  popula- 
tion of  this  region,  as  shown  by  supposedly  Neolithic  cave  re- 
mains from  Tonkin  and  from  the  shell-heaps  of  the  Tonle-Sap 
or  Great  Lake  of  Cambodia,  was  prevailingly  dolichocephalic. 
In  the  modern  population  two  quite  different  groups  may  be  dis- 
tinguished. The  first  is  represented  by  the  Cham  and  their  affili- 
ated tribes,  together  with  a large  part  of  the  Mon-Khmer-speak- 
ing  peoples  of  the  higher  plateaus  and  mountains,  i.  e.,  the  Pnong, 
Moi,  Kha,  etc.  All  of  these  show  a large  dolichocephalic  factor, 
and  in  this  respect  seem  allied  to  the  ancient  population.  This 
more  aboriginal  long-headed  group  may  be  further  subdivided 
into  those  who,  like  the  Cham,  are  tall  with  straight  or  wavy 
hair,  light  skins,  relatively  narrow  and  sometimes  aquiline  noses 
and  non-Mongoloid  eyes;  and  those  who,  like  some  of  the  wilder 
Mon-Khmer  tribes,  are  marked  by  distinctly  short  stature,  dark 
skin,  curly  or  even  frizzly  hair,  a broad  nose  and  thick  Negroid 
lips.  While  metrical  data  are  almost  wholly  lacking,  it  seems 
probable  that  we  have  in  the  latter  group  the  much  mixed  sur- 
vivors of  an  early  Negroid  stratum,  of  mixed  Proto- Australoid 
Breton,  1879;  Deniker,  1890;  Neis,  1883;  Girard,  1901. 


THE  SOUTHERN  PENINSULAS 


277 


and  Proto-Negroid  types  (with  perhaps  some  Negrito),  whereas 
in  the  former  we  may  suspect  the  presence  of  a considerable  Cas- 
pian-Mediterranean  element,  of  which  we  shall  find  clear  indica- 
tions farther  north  in  China  and  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

The  other  major  division  of  the  population  is,  in  contrast  to 
the  first,  in  majority  brachycephalic,  and  includes  the  Siamese, 
Laos,  and  all  the  Thai-speaking  tribes,  together  with  the  Ton- 
kinese and  Annamese.  All  of  these  are  of  short  stature  (averag- 
ing under  160  cm.),  with  light  yellowish  skin,  straight  black  hair, 
and  eyes  which  usually  show  the  Mongoloid  fold.  In  all  the 
Palae- Alpine  type  is  in  large,  often  very  large  majority,  the  Alpine 
being  secondary;  a small  minority  of  leptorrhine  dolichocephalic 
forms  also  sometimes  appears.  The  modern  Khmer  or  Cambo- 
dians seem  to  be,  on  the  whole,  intermediate  between  this  group 
and  the  first. 

Now  the  origin  of  this  brachycephalic,  Thai-speaking  group 
can  be  traced  historically  with  some  certainty.  In  the  third  cen- 
tury A.  D.,  when  we  first  get  any  information  in  regard  to  this 
region,  the  whole  area,  except  perhaps  the  southern  and  south- 
eastern coasts,  was  occupied  by  Mon-Khmer-speaking  peoples, 
among  whom  already  cultural  influences  from  India  had  begun 
to  make  themselves  felt.  In  the  succeeding  centuries  a consid- 
erable civilization  grew  up  among  the  Khmer,  initiated  appar- 
ently by  actual  colonies  of  Dra vidian-speaking  peoples  from  the 
eastern  or  Coromandel  coast  of  India.  By  the  fifth  or  sixth  cen- 
tury A.  D.  these  states  began  to  be  savagely  attacked  by  Thai- 
speaking tribes  pressing  southward  from  China  along  the  Menam 
and  Mekong  valleys.  In  the  former  their  pressure  was  strongest, 
and  although  held  in  check  for  a time,  in  the  eleventh  and  again 
in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  they  swept  away  all 
resistance,  and  finally  conquered  the  Menam  valley  to  the  sea, 
completely  destroying  the  western  Mon-Khmer  kingdoms  in 
what  is  now  Siam.  Farther  eastward  the  Laos  were  less  success- 
ful, and  although  the  Khmer  kingdom  fell  before  the  attacks  of 
the  Thai  (Siamese)  from  the  west,  and  those  of  the  Annamese 
from  the  east,  their  descendants  still  form  the  bulk  of  the  popu- 


278 


ASIA 


lation  of  Cambodia  to-day.  The  modern  Siamese,  Laos,  and 
other  Thai-speaking  peoples  here  are  thus  the  somewhat  mixed 
descendants  of  the  old,  non-Chinese  population  of  southern 
China,  who,  as  will  be  seen  in  a later  chapter,  have  been  of  large 
historical  importance  in  China  since  very  early  times. 

What  can  be  said  of  the  Mon-Khmer  peoples,  who  apparently 
everywhere  preceded  the  Thai  peoples  in  this  extreme  southeast- 
ern corner  of  Asia?  On  the  basis  of  our  present  data,  the  most 
reasonable  theory  would  seem  to  be  that  they  were  a mixed 
people,  predominantly  of  Proto-Negroid,  Proto- Australoid,  and 
Caspian  types,  with  a minority  of  the  Palse-Alpine  factor  which 
was  dominant  in  the  Thai,  and  a trace,  perhaps,  of  its  Negrito 
variety.  That  the  early  Mon-Khmer  had  a notable  “ Negroid” 
element  seems  to  be  corroborated  by  the  Chinese  descriptions  of 
them  in  the  third  century.  In  regard  to  the  sources  of  the 
Negroid  element  we  have  as  yet  no  clear  evidence,  and  can  only 
conjecture  that  it  came  in  from  the  westward  along  the  southern 
border  of  the  Asiatic  continent.  The  Caspian  factor,  present  in 
this  region  in  minor  degree  only,  seems,  however,  clearly  to  have 
come  down  from  the  north  along  the  Mekong  valley,  from  the 
mountain  and  plateau  region  of  the  Chinese-Tibetan  border, 
where  strong  remnants  of  the  type  are  still  to  be  seen.  It  is 
tempting  to  regard  the  Cham,  who  appear  to  have  been  the  earli- 
est historical  occupants  of  the  Mekong  delta,  as  a relatively  pure 
advance  guard  of  this  Caspian  type,  which,  mingling  with  the 
prehistoric  Negroid  and  Negrito  aborigines,  formed  the  nucleus  of 
the  people  who,  under  the  pressure  of  the  Mon-Khmer,  emi- 
grated eastward,  to  form  the  older  or  so-called  Indonesian  stratum 
of  population  in  the  archipelago,  and  later  moved  on  farther  east 
through  Melanesia  to  the  islands  of  the  South  Seas.  This  ques- 
tion, however,  we  must  leave  for  discussion  in  the  section  de- 
voted to  the  peoples  of  Oceania. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  EASTERN  BORDERLANDS 
I.  China 

The  area  included  in  China  proper,  the  eighteen  provinces, 
comprises  three  regions  of  quite  different  character.  In  the 
northeast  is  the  fertile  alluvial  plain  formed  in  part  by  the  great 
delta  of  the  Yellow  River  and  extending  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Yangtse  northward  to  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  and  from  the  sea  west- 
ward to  the  base  of  the  escarpment  of  the  Mongolian  plateau. 
In  climate  this  portion  of  China  is  essentially  temperate.  Prac- 
tically the  whole  of  China  south  of  the  Yangtse  consists  of  hilly 
and  mountainous  country,  the  elevation  and  dissection  of  which 
increases  westward  toward  the  Tibetan  border.  The  coastal 
region  and  parts  of  the  southern  interior  are  distinctly  tropical 
or  subtropical  in  climate,  but  with  the  increasing  elevation 
westward,  conditions  become  more  temperate,  and  in  parts  of 
Yunnan,  Szechuan,  and  southern  Shensi  the  winters  are  quite 
rigorous.  The  third  section  is  that  in  the  northwest,  comprising 
parts  of  western  Shansi,  Shensi,  and  eastern  Kansu.  Here  what 
is  actually  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  Mongolian  plateau 
forms  the  great  Loess  district,  with  semi-arid  environment. 

The  population  of  China  to-day  is  far  from  uniform.  Al- 
though the  Chinese  themselves  comprise  the  great  majority, 
there  is  in  addition  in  the  north  a not  inconsiderable  Manchu 
element,  while  in  the  south  there  are  considerable  fragments  of 
non-Chinese,  aboriginal  peoples,  called  generically  by  the  Chi- 
nese “Miaotse”  together  with  peoples  of  Tibeto-Burman  speech, 
like  the  Lolo  and  other  tribes  of  the  western  marches. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  peoples 
of  China  is  very  limited.  A few  score  crania,  mostly  of  uncertain 
provenance  and  age,  and  a still  smaller  number  of  measurements 

279 


280 


ASIA 


on  the  living  almost  wholly  from  the  single  province  of  Kwang- 
tung,  constitute  the  only  data  on  which  to  base  conclusions  in 
regard  to  a population  of  several  hundred  millions  of  people, 
scattered  over  a great  and  very  varied  area.  Of  archaeological 
material  there  is  as  yet  nothing  whatever,  except  two  skulls,  one 
from  Shantung,1  the  other  from  Amoy.2  The  first  dates  prob- 
ably from  about  the  second  century  A.  D.,  and  shows  a mixture 
of  Alpine  and  Caspian  types;  the  second,  of  uncertain  but  appar- 
ently very  considerable  age,  also  represents  a mixture,  in  this 
case  of  the  Palae- Alpine  and  Proto-Negroid.  To  base  conclu- 
sions on  two  crania  is  obviously  impossible;  all  that  can  be  said 
is  that  they  seem  to  accord  in  general  character  with  the  results 
derivable  from  what  other  material  we  possess,  as  I shall  try  to 
show. 

The  published  data  on  crania  and  the  measurements  on  the 
living,  both  published  and  unpublished,3  seem  to  indicate  a broad 
division  of  the  present  population  into  a northern  and  a southern 
or,  more  strictly,  northeastern  and  southeastern  group.  The 
northern,  which  in  the  main  occupies  the  great  alluvial  plain,  is 
in  stature  tall,  averaging  slightly  over  170  cm.  in  Shantung  and 
Chili.  In  head-form  the  evidence  derived  from  crania  and  that 
from  measurements  on  the  living  do  not  well  agree.  Both  show 
a predominance,  to  be  sure,  of  brachycephalic  factors,  but  this 
is  very  much  stronger  in  the  small  series  of  measurements  on  the 
living  than  in  the  case  of  the  larger  series  of  crania.  In  both, 
however,  the  Alpine  type  is  dominant,  the  secondary  factor  being 
the  Palae-Alpine.  The  crania  indicate  a rather  considerable  mi- 
nority (ca.  20  per  cent)  of  the  Caspian  type. 

The  southeastern  group  includes  the  coastal  population  of 
Chekiang,  Fukien,  and  Kwangtung.  The  stature  here  is  dis- 
tinctly below  the  medium  (averaging  about  162  cm.)  and  the 
head-form  is  more  predominantly  brachycephalic  than  in  the 
north.  Moreover,  the  more  northerly  provinces  of  Chekiang 

1 Virchow,  H.,  1913.  2 Zograf,  1893. 

3 For  bibliography,  see  Haberer,  1902.  See  also  Li,  MS.,  and  Gaupp,  1909; 

Girard,  1898,  1899;  Legendre,  1909,  1911;  Mochi,  1908;  Talko-Hryncewicz,  1899. 


THE  EASTERN  BORDERLANDS 


281 


and  Fukien  show  certain  significant  contrasts  with  Kwangtung. 
In  the  former  two  provinces  the  dominant  factor  is,  as  in  the 
north,  the  Alpine,  while  in  the  dolichocephalic  minority  the 
platyrrhine  factors  hold  first  place;  in  Kwangtung,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  the  Palae-Alpine  type  which  is  dominant,  and  the 
Caspian  factors  outweigh  the  platyrrhine  Proto-Negroid. 

Before  attempting  to  draw  conclusions  from  these  facts  we 
may  turn  to  the  very  scanty  information  which  we  possess  in 
regard  to  the  people  in  the  interior.  Legendre’s1  figures  for 
Szechuan  indicate  a stature  still  shorter  than  that  found  on  the 
southern  coast,  and  a considerably  larger  proportion  of  dolicho- 
cephalic elements.  As  no  individual  measurements  are  given,  it 
is  impossible  to  determine  what  types  are  present.  In  Hunan,  if 
the  measurements  of  a very  small  number  of  persons  may  be 
taken  as  indicative,  the  same  conditions  would  appear  to  exist, 
but  here  the  platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  factors  are  of  unex- 
pected strength.  For  Honan  and  Hupeh,  provinces  forming  the 
very  heart  of  ancient  China,  no  information  whatever  is  avail- 
able; and  we  have  no  data  at  all  in  regard  to  any  of  the  non- 
Chinese  peoples,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  Lolo.  Of  this 
vigorous  and  warlike  people  of  southern  Szechuan,  still  semi- 
independent and  possessing  a culture  strongly  contrasted  with 
that  of  the  Chinese,  we  have  a small  series  of  measurements2 
which  are,  I believe,  of  much  significance.  The  Lolo  are  divided 
into  an  aristocracy  and  a class  of  common  people,  and  the  two 
groups  appear  to  differ  in  their  physical  characteristics.  The 
aristocracy  is  very  similar  to  the  population  of  Kwangtung,  the 
Pake-Alpine  factors  being  in  the  majority,  with  the  Alpine  type 
secondary.  The  common  people,  on  the  other  hand,  show  a 
still  stronger  dominance  of  the  Palae-Alpine  type,  the  Alpine 
being  displaced  as  a secondary  type  by  the  Caspian. 

In  general  the  skin  color  of  the  population  of  the  whole  of 
China  is  light,  although  with  a characteristic  yellowish  tinge, 
which  early  won  for  them  the  name  of  the  Yellow  Race.  In  the 
west,  however,  and  particularly  among  the  Lolo  and  some  other 

1 Legendre,  op.  cit.  2 Legendre,  op.  cit. 


282 


ASIA 


border  tribes,  individuals  are  not  infrequently  met  with  who 
have  a white-rosy  complexion,  quite  like  that  of  a European. 
In  hair  and  eye  color  the  population  is  also  in  general  very  uni- 
form, dark  eyes  and  straight  black  hair  being  the  rule.  In  some 
areas,  however,  especially  in  the  west,  where  European-like  com- 
plexions occur,  we  find  occasionally  among  the  non-Chinese 
tribes,  and  more  rarely  among  the  Chinese  themselves,  brown, 
wavy,  or  even  curly  hair,  together  with  hazel  or  gray-blue  eyes. 
Reference  is  made  also  to  small  groups  of  very  dark-skinned, 
curly,  or  even  frizzly-haired  folk  in  this  same  southwestern  bor- 
derland,1 while  in  the  north,  in  Shantung,  there  is  some  indica- 
tion of  occasional  red-haired  individuals.  No  adequate  data, 
however,  are  available  on  this  whole  question. 

If  we  attempt  to  summarize  the  results  so  far  obtained,  it 
seems  that  there  is  a broad  distinction  between  the  people  of  the 
northeast  and  those  of  the  south  and  southwest  of  China.  The 
former  tend  toward  tall  stature  and  are  predominantly  of  Alpine 
type;  the  latter  are,  on  the  other  hand,  distinctly  shorter,  and 
are  in  the  majority  Palae-Alpine.  Further,  although  a dolicho- 
cephalic minority  is  present  throughout,  it  is  much  stronger  in 
the  southwest  among  the  non-Chinese  population  than  in  the 
northern  or  southern  coast.  The  portraits  given  on  Plate  XIX, 
Fig.  4,  and  Plate  XX,  Fig.  i,  illustrate  in  the  first  case  a man 
of  mixed  Alpine  and  Caspian  type,  and  in  the  second  the  pre- 
dominating Palae-Alpine  type  more  characteristic  of  the  south. 

The  explanation  of  these  contrasts  is  suggested,  I believe,  by 
China’s  early  history.  The  oldest  known  home  of  the  Chinese 
people  was  in  the  valley  of  the  Wei  River,  which  flows  into  the 
Yellow  River  from  the  west,  just  about  at  its  sharp  turn  where 
it  emerges  from  the  Mongolian  plateau  onto  the  plain.  Here,  as 
early  perhaps  as  the  third  millennium  B.  C.,  they  lived  as  a 
small,  sedentary,  agricultural  people,  organized  in  a series  of 
small  city  states.  On  all  sides  were  “barbarians,”  those  to 
the  west  and  north  being  the  horse-riding,  pastoral,  nomadic 
Hiung-nu,  in  all  probability  of  Turkish  speech;  to  the  east  were 

1 Farrer,  1921,  p.  75. 


THE  EASTERN  BORDERLANDS 


283 


a crudely  agricultural  but  mainly  fishing  and  hunting  people, 
who  held  the  great  alluvial  plains;  to  the  south,  in  what  was 
called  “the  jungle,”  were  other  barbarians,  probably  of  Thai 
and,  toward  the  coast,  of  Mon-Khmer  speech.  In  their  expan- 
sion the  Chinese,  who  already  knew  the  use  of  bronze,  pushed 
east  and  north  to  the  coast,  conquering  and  absorbing,  and  in 
part  probably  driving  out  the  earlier  folk,  who  along  the  shore 
and  especially  in  Shantung  were  maritime  traders  and  pirates. 
For  a thousand  years  at  least  and  probably  more,  the  Yangtse 
formed  the  southern  limit  of  what  was  China.  Their  progress 
beyond  the  Yangtse  was  slow,  and  began,  apparently,  along  the 
coast,  where  they  overcame  the  maritime  population  long  before 
they  penetrated  the  interior,  and  it  was  not  until  the  period  of 
Kublai  Khan  in  the  thirteenth  century  A.  D.  that  the  interior 
provinces  in  the  south  became  really  a part  of  the  empire. 

Taking  into  account  these  facts  of  history,  the  meagre  data 
from  China  itself,  and  what  we  know  in  regard  to  the  neigh- 
boring regions,  the  following  hypothesis  in  regard  to  the  racial 
history  of  China  is,  with  much  hesitation,  suggested.  The  earli- 
est stratum  of  population  traceable  in  northern  China,  at  least, 
was  dolichocephalic.  The  evidence  for  this  is  admittedly  weak, 
yet  no  other  conclusion  seems  equally  plausible.  The  modern 
population  of  the  Yellow  River  delta  region  contains,  as  has 
been  shown,  a considerable  dolichocephalic  factor,  in  part  Cas- 
pian, in  part  a blend  of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid. 
These  elements  are  relatively  stronger  south  of  the  Yangtse,  and 
are  known  to  have  been  the  dominant  elements  in  Tonkin  in 
Neolithic  times.1  They  form  the  most  ancient  stratum  of  popu- 
lation, as  will  be  shown  later,  in  Japan;  they  survive  in  consid- 
erable strength  to  this  day  among  the  Ainu  of  Yezo  and  Sakhalin. 
We  may,  I believe,  accept  an  ancient  Neolithic  population  of 
platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  types  as  having  spread  northward 
up  the  coast.  Next  in  sequence  came  the  short-statured  Palae- 
Alpine  type,  present  as  a secondary  factor  throughout  northern 
China  to-day,  and  as  the  primary  type  south  of  the  Yangtse. 

1 See  ante,  p.  270. 


284 


ASIA 


Whether  it  came  into  China  from  the  north,  from  eastern  Mon- 
golia, where  its  presence  is  indicated  (?)  in  Neolithic  times,  or 
from  the  west  it  is  impossible  to  say.  It  may  have  included 
some  Negrito  element,  or  this  may  have  been  a still  older  factor 
in  the  south  and  west,  where  short,  dark-skinned,  curly-haired 
folk  have  been  reported  in  recent  years.  Whatever  its  source, 
it  seems  to  have  become  the  dominant  type  throughout  China, 
except  on  the  coasts,  where  the  older  platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic 
forms  long  prevailed.  Following  (?)  this,  came  a wave  of  peo- 
ples of  Caspian  type,  entering  China  almost  certainly  by  way  of 
the  Yellow  River  valley,  from  inner  Asia.  It  spread  both  in  the 
north  and  south,  and  part  of  the  influence  of  this  type  now  dis- 
cernible in  the  southwest  of  China  seems  attributable  to  this 
early  wave.  A later  proto-historic  drift  of  the  same  type,  ter- 
minating only  just  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and 
coming  through  western  Kansu,  the  Tsaidam,  and  eastern  Tibet 
being  responsible  for  the  rest.  The  last  of  the  great  move- 
ments was  that  of  the  people  of  Alpine  type,  who,  pouring  in 
from  the  west,  flooded  first  the  northern  plain  and  later  pene- 
trated southward  toward  Indo-China.  And  this  drift  of  Alpine 
peoples  out  of  inner  Asia  into  China  seems  to  have  continued 
throughout  the  centuries  down  to  the  present,  for  we  find  that 
there  is  to-day  an  almost  insensible  trickle  of  non-Chinese  peo- 
ples, primarily  of  this  type,  coming  into  Kansu  and  Szechuan, 
where  in  a generation  or  two  they  dissolve  into  the  mass  of  the 
population. 

To  which  of  the  types  did  the  ancient  Chinese  folk  belong? 
In  the  total  absence  of  material  from  the  earliest  sites  of  Chinese 
culture,  it  is  more  than  hazardous  even  to  guess.  In  my  opinion, 
however,  the  little  group  of  town-dwelling,  agricultural  folk  who 
in  the  third  millennium  B.  C.,  in  the  Wei  valley  on  the  verge 
of  the  inner-Asiatic  steppe  and  desert,  constituted  the  kernel  of 
what  was  to  be  the  Chinese  people — this  little  group  were,  I be- 
lieve, primarily  of  the  Alpine  type,  coming  from  the  irrigable 
oases  along  the  southern  border  of  Chinese  Turkestan,  but 
blended  with  a minority  of  the  Caspian  type. 


THE  EASTERN  BORDERLANDS 


285 


II.  Manchuria  and  Korea 

The  peoples  of  Manchuria  and  Korea  may  conveniently  be 
considered  together,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  physical  fea- 
tures of  the  two  areas  are  quite  different.  The  greater  part  of 
Manchuria  consists  of  open  steppe,  drained  northward  by  the 
Sungari  River  into  the  Amur  and  southward  by  the  Liao  River 
to  the  Gulf  of  Pechili.  On  the  west  the  Great  Khingan  range 
emphasizes  the  edge  of  the  Mongolian  plateau;  to  the  north  the 
forested  uplands  along  the  Amur  mark  the  beginning  of  a wholly 
new  environment;  in  the  east  the  region  is  again  mountainous, 
and  this  rugged  country  extends  southward  through  the  penin- 
sula of  Korea,  which,  except  on  its  western  and  southern  sides, 
contains  little  good  agricultural  land.  The  whole  region  is  in 
its  environment  transitional,  between  the  steppe  and  desert  of 
the  plateaus  to  the  west,  the  heavily  forested  country  to  the 
north,  and  the  agricultural  plains  of  northern  China. 

Historically,  Manchuria  has  been  a reservoir  from  which  suc- 
cessive hordes  of  Tungusic  peoples  have  swept  down  upon  north- 
ern China  during  the  period  from  the  seventh  to  the  seventeenth 
centuries.  Its  present  population  comprises  a few  Mongols,  but 
in  the  main  is  made  up  of  mixed  Manchus  and  Chinese,  with,  in 
recent  times,  many  Japanese.  Linguistically  the  region  presents 
some  interesting  puzzles,  for,  although  the  Manchu  belongs  with 
the  other  Tungusic  languages  spoken  in  the  Amur  basin  and  far- 
ther north,  the  Korean  is  still  uncertain  in  its  affiliations,  although 
relations  with  Japanese,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Ural-Altaic 
languages  on  the  other,  have  been  pointed  out. 

We  possess  no  data  in  regard  to  the  ancient  peoples  of  any 
part  of  this  region,  and  for  the  modern  Manchus  the  material  is 
very  scanty.  Although  described  by  some  writers  as  tall,  the 
Manchus  are,  according  to  Torii’s  measurements,1  a little  under 
medium  stature  (average  163  cm.).  The  skin  color  is  yellowish, 
the  hair  black  and  straight,  the  eyes  dark  and  usually  Mongo- 
loid. In  head-form  the  few  measurements  show  the  people  to 

1 Torii,  1914. 


286 


ASIA 


be  purely  brachycephalic,  the  Alpine  type  being  in  the  large 
majority.  Yet  the  extremely  high  indices  suggest  that  cranial 
deformation  may  be  practised,  thus  obscuring  the  real  facts. 
Compared  with  the  other  Tunguse  tribes  farther  north,  the 
Manchus  seem  to  be  much  more  purely  Alpine. 

For  Korea  we  have,  fortunately,  much  more  satisfactory  ma- 
terials,1 although  for  parts  of  the  peninsula  they  are  very  defec- 
tive, and  there  are  few  cranial  data.  From  Kubo’s  data  on 
army  recruits  it  appears  that  the  Koreans  in  general  are  taller 
than  the  Japanese,  although  as  a rule  slightly  shorter  than  the 
Manchus.  The  population  of  the  west  coast  is  slightly  shorter 
than  that  on  the  east.  In  head-form  the  people  show  through- 
out a strong  predominance  of  brachycephalic  factors,  yet  there 
is  a noteworthy  difference  between  the  population  of  the  three 
western  and  southwestern  provinces  of  Hwang-hai,  Chung-ching, 
and  Chol-la,  and  that  in  Pjong-an  in  the  north  and  Kjong-kwi 
and  Kang-won  in  the  central  part  of  the  peninsula.  In  the  for- 
mer the  Palos-Alpine  type  is  dominant,  largely  exceeding  the 
Alpine  in  importance;  in  the  latter  the  proportions  of  the  two 
types  are  reversed.  A further  difference  appears  in  that  in  the 
northern  and  central  provinces  the  dolichocephalic  factors  which 
in  the  main  are  platyrrhine,  are  two  or  three  times  more  abun- 
dant than  elsewhere. 

From  historical  sources  we  know  that  in  the  second  century 
B.  C.  the  population  of  western  Korea  was  closely  affiliated,  if 
not  identical,  with  that  of  southern  Manchuria,  whereas  the 
southern  and  eastern  coasts  were  occupied  by  a different,  dis- 
tinctly maritime  people,  related  in  speech  to  the  people  of  the 
island  of  Kiushu  in  southern  Japan,  the  non-Chinese  remnants 
along  the  southern  coast  of  China,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Philippines.  The  correlation  of  this  early  historical  difference  in 
population  with  the  observed  two  groups  among  the  present 
people  is  not  yet  plain.  Perhaps  the  Palae-Alpine  group  in  the 
west  may  be  regarded  as  the  survivors  of  the  ancient  population, 
once  continuous  with  that  of  Manchuria,  whereas  the  platyr- 

1 Bogdanov,  1878-79  d;  Hamy,  1896;  Koganei,  1906;  Kubo,  1913;  Waldeyer,  1899. 


THE  EASTERN  BORDERLANDS 


287 


rhine,  dolichocephalic  element  represents  in  some  way  the  old 
maritime  coastal  population  affiliated  with  that  of  the  Chinese 
coast,  which  in  very  early  times  seems  to  have  extended  north- 
ward as  far  as  the  opposite  shores  of  Shantung.  The  Alpine 
factors,  which  are  strongest  in  the  north,  may  finally  represent 
a relatively  late  wave  of  this  type,  spreading  eastward  through 
northern  Manchuria.  The  dolichocephalic  elements  are  also  al- 
most certainly  related  to  the  same  factors  so  strongly  represented 
among  the  Ainu.  The  entire  question  is  complicated,  and  no 
solution  can  be  hoped  for  until  the  abundant  archaeological  ma- 
terial in  the  region  is  available  for  study. 

III.  Japan 

The  long  chain  of  islands,  great  and  small,  stretching  from 
the  Riu-kiu  group  through  the  Japanese  archipelago  to  Sakhalin 
and  the  Kurile  Islands,  seems  to  have  in  its  racial  history  a 
certain  unity.  Shaped  roughly  like  a gigantic  Y,  it  touches  the 
Asiatic  mainland  at  three  points,  i.  e.,  Korea,  the  mouth  of  the 
Amur,  and  Kamchatka.  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  ex- 
tent the  islands  are  rugged  and  volcanic,  and  afford  relatively 
little  good  agricultural  land.  The  Riu-kius  are  in  their  environ- 
ment subtropical,  and  these  conditions  fade  northward  through 
Japan  until  in  Yezo,  Sakhalin,  and  the  Kurile  Islands  the  climate 
is  rigorous.  In  Japan  itself  there  is  much  difference  in  this 
respect  between  the  eastern  and  western  shores,  the  latter  being 
much  colder  than  the  former. 

Of  the  prehistoric  population  of  Japan  we  are  just  beginning 
to  learn,  through  the  investigations  carried  on  by  various  Jap- 
anese archaeologists  during  the  last  few  years.1  Although  the 
actual  measurements  of  the  crania  found  have  not,  as  a rule, 
yet  been  made  accessible,  it  seems  that  the  following  conclusions 
are  justified.  The  earliest  remains  yet  found,  regarded  as  early 
Neolithic  in  age,  come  from  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  main 
island  of  Nippon.  They  show  a people  short  of  stature  and 

1 Matsumoto,  1921;  Suzuki,  1918;  Hasebe,  1920. 


288 


ASIA 


prevailingly  dolichocephalic,  who  are  declared  to  have  resem- 
bled quite  closely  the  long-headed  element  among  the  modern 
Ainu.  If  this  is  so,  then  this  earliest  population  of  Japan  were 
in  the  main  a blend  of  Proto- Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types, 
and  thus  similar  to  the  ancient  underlying  stratum  of  the  popu- 
lation, southward  along  the  whole  coast  and  throughout  Indo- 
China,  and  beyond  to  India  itself.  Following  this  earliest 
stratum  there  appears  in  middle  Neolithic  times,  in  the  region 
about  the  Inland  Sea,  as  well  as  in  the  extreme  northeast,  a 
wholly  different  people.  Shorter,  almost  dwarfish,  they  are  ap- 
parently of  the  Palae-Alpine  type,  and  their  very  short  stature 
raises  a question  whether  some  Negrito  factor  may  not  be  pres- 
ent. From  its  greater  purity  in  the  western  portion  of  the 
island,  it  seems  probable  that  these  people  entered  Japan  from 
the  southwest,  and  spread  northward.  Third  in  sequence  is  a 
much  taller  people,  almost  certainly  identifiable  as  Caspian  in 
type.  Like  its  predecessor,  it  came  in  from  the  south  and  west, 
and  gradually  spread  northward,  driving  the  earlier  groups  be- 
fore it  to  some  extent. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  no  study  seems  yet  to  have  been  made 
of  the  crania  from  the  very  abundant  sites  of  the  so-called  Ya- 
mato  period,  attributable  to  the  proto-historic  and  early  historic 
Japanese.  Lacking  this,  the  correlation  of  the  prehistoric  data 
with  that  derived  from  the  modern  population  becomes  difficult. 

The  modern  population  comprises  two  quite  distinct  groups 
of  people — the  Gilyak  and  Ainu,  aboriginal  peoples  of  Sakhalin, 
the  Kurile  Islands,  and  of  parts  of  the  island  of  Yezo;  and  the 
Japanese  and  occupants  of  the  Riu-kiu  Islands.  The  Gilyak 
occupy  the  northern  part  of  Sakhalin  and  the  mainland  coast 
adjoining,  from  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amur  along  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Okhotsk  Sea  to  Ulban  Bay.  There  is  some  reason 
to  believe  that  their  earlier  home  was  on  Sakhalin,  and  that 
they  have  spread  thence  to  the  mainland.  Linguistically  they 
are  quite  isolated.  From  the  fragmentary  material  accessible  in 
regard  to  their  physical  characteristics,1  it  seems  clear  that  they 

1 Bogdanov,  1878-79  f;  Schrenck,  1881. 


Fig.  2.  Ainu. 


Fig.  i.  Chinese.  (Southern  Type.) 


Fig.  3.  Japanese.  (Caspian  Type.) 

PLATE  XX. 


Fig.  4.  Kalmuck. 


THE  EASTERN  BORDERLANDS 


289 


are  a considerably  mixed  people,  in  whom,  however,  dolicho- 
cephalic factors  largely  prevail,  the  Proto-Negroid  type  being  in 
the  majority.  The  purer  individuals  seem  to  resemble  the  Ainu 
quite  closely,  lacking,  however,  the  extreme  development  of  hair 
characteristic  of  the  latter.  They  have,  on  the  other  hand,  much 
more  hair  on  the  body  and  face  than  the  neighboring  Tunguse 
tribes.  We  may  probably  regard  the  Gilyak  as  a people  essen- 
tially similar  to  the  Ainu,  who  have  had  a considerable  infusion 
of  Alpine  types  due  to  contact  with  the  Tunguse  peoples. 

Although  the  Ainu  to-day  are  a rapidly  disappearing  folk,  in 
the  earlier  historic  and  traditional  period  they  were  much  more 
numerous,  and  extended  over  a wide  area,  occupying,  besides 
parts  of  Sakhalin,  the  Kurile  Islands,  and  Yezo,  the  whole  of 
the  northern  half  or  two-thirds  of  the  island  of  Nippon.  They 
speak  a language  which  bears  no  relation  to  any  of  its  neighbors, 
and  as  a people  have  long  aroused  the  interest  of  anthropologists 
because  of  their  striking  difference  from  all  the  neighboring 
groups.  Of  short  stature  (averaging  from  156-158  cm.),  with  a 
reddish-brown  skin,  which  sometimes  is  quite  dark,  they  have 
long  wavy  or  curly  black  hair  and  abundant  beards  and  very 
hairy  bodies.  The  eyes  are  dark  and  show  no  trace  of  the  Mon- 
goloid fold.  Their  whole  appearance  and  expression  (apart  from 
their  skin  color)  suggest  European  comparisons,  especially  writh 
certain  Russian  peasant  types.  Some  observers  have  also  noted 
resemblances  to  Australian  natives.  These  are  apparent  in  the 
portrait  given  on  Plate  XX,  Fig.  2. 

Fortunately  the  wide-spread  interest  in  the  Ainu  has  resulted 
in  several  careful  studies,1  and  these  relatively  abundant  data 
yield  on  analysis  results  of  large  significance.  The  purest  Ainu 
to-day  are  those  of  northern  Yezo  and  southern  Sakhalin.  They 
show  a large  predominance  of  dolichocephalic  factors,  the  Proto- 
Negroid  and  Proto-Australoid  being  of  greatest  importance,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Caspian.  The  brachycephalic  elements  (which  in- 
crease rapidly  southward)  are  primarily  the  Pake-Alpine,  the 
Alpine  being  in  very  small  minority  except  among  the  more 

1 Koganei,  1893;  Tarenetsky,  1890;  Torok,  1889-99. 


290 


ASIA 


southern  mixed  groups,  where  the  two  brachycephalic  factors 
outnumber  the  dolichocephalic.  The  purer  Ainu  of  the  north 
are,  it  is  to  be  noted,  quite  frequently  marked  by  a considerable 
degree  of  prognathism.  If  now  we  take  into  consideration  the 
prehistoric  types,  whose  character  and  sequence  in  Japan  have 
been  established,  it  is  clear  that  in  the  Ainu  we  have  the  de- 
scendants of  the  earliest  Neolithic  population,  mixed  with  the 
later  Neolithic  Palae- Alpine,  and  Caspian  types.  The  presence 
so  far  to  the  northward  of  a strong  factor  of  Proto-Negroid  and 
Proto-Australoid  types  is  corroborated  by  the  traces  of  their 
ancient  presence  along  the  Chinese  coastal  region  and  in  the 
southeast  of  the  continent.  The  Ainu  thus  represent  the  last 
remnants  of  the  ancient  population  of  the  whole  eastern  littoral 
of  Asia,  driven  out,  absorbed  or  destroyed  elsewhere  north  of 
Indo-China,  but  surviving  here  in  isolation,  much  mixed  with 
the  later  peoples. 

For  the  Japanese  people  themselves  we  have,  curiously,  much 
less  satisfactory  data.1  In  the  series  of  crania  which  have  been 
published,2  in  spite  of  the  recognized  wide  differences  locally 
and  between  different  classes  in  the  community,  no  attempt  has 
been  made  to  note  the  origin  of  the  specimens,  nor  have  even  the 
sexes  been  distinguished  except  by  Nakano.  All  that  can  be  said 
in  regard  to  the  older  material,  is  that  in  a heterogeneous  series 
of  Japanese  crania  the  brachycephalic  factors  are  in  the  major- 
ity; that  the  Palae- Alpine  is  the  type  of  greatest  importance; 
and  that  this  is  followed  in  order  by  the  Proto-Negroid  and 
Alpine  types.  The  Japanese  thus,  if  we  may  judge  by  this  sam- 
ple, are  in  large  measure  the  reverse  of  the  Ainu,  i.  e.,  the  Palae- 
Alpine,  which  there  was  secondary,  is  here  primary;  the  Proto- 
Negroid  elements  that  there  were  primary  are  here  secondary; 
and  the  Alpine  factor,  which  among  the  Ainu  was  slight,  here 
almost  occupies  second  place.  The  Caspian  type  is  represented 
but  very  weakly  in  this  series  of  Japanese  crania,  but  I believe 


1 1 am  greatly  indebted  to  Doctor  Nenozo  Utsurikawa,  of  Keio  University, 
Tokyo,  for  references  to  and  translations  of  Japanese  sources. 

2 Baelz,  1881,  1885;  Mochi,  1908;  Toldt,  1904;  Nakano,  1908,  1913. 


THE  EASTERN  BORDERLANDS 


291 


that  if  we  had  material  available  from  the  proper  areas  it  would 
be  found  to  be  considerably  more  abundant.  From  Nakano’s 
data,  although  no  individual  measurements  are  given,  it  seems 
clear  that  the  population  of  the  northwestern  coast  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Kanazawa  shows  a rather  strong  preponderance  of  dolicho- 
cephalic factors,  in  which  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Caspian  appear 
to  be  of  greatest  importance.  On  the  northern  shores  of  the 
Inland  Sea,  on  the  other  hand,  these  elements  are  much 
weaker. 

If  no  adequate  study  has  been  made  as  yet  of  Japanese 
crania,  the  beginnings  of  an  investigation  of  the  living  population 
afford  a little  but  very  welcome  light  on  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  the  various  types.1  Although  the  data  have  not  been 
published  for  the  individual  measurements,  except  in  the  older 
material  of  Baelz,  it  is  nevertheless  apparent  that  the  early  Neo- 
lithic types  are  still  traceable  in  the  north  and  northeast,  where, 
as  well  as  in  the  extreme  south,  in  southern  Kiushu  and  southern 
Shikoku,  the  very  short  Palae- Alpine  type  still  survives.  The 
Caspian  type  is  widely  scattered,  but  seems  especially  noticeable 
in  northern  Kiushu  and  on  the  Shikoku  shore  of  the  Inland  Sea. 
It  is  said  to  be  found  also  along  the  northwestern  coast  of  Nip- 
pon. A portrait  illustrating  a man  of  this  type  is  given  on  Plate 
XX,  Fig.  3.  The  Alpine  type,  finally,  seems  to  be  most  abundant 
around  the  northern  shore  of  the  Inland  Sea  and  in  the  western 
and  southwestern  portions  of  Nippon.  On  the  basis  of  the  data 
thus  far  published  the  various  types  appear  to  be  distributed  in 
a remarkably  regular  fashion,  such  that  the  more  ancient  are  in 
general  farthest  away  from  the  point  where  the  archipelago 
comes  nearest  to  the  mainland  in  Korea,  while  the  more  recent 
cluster  about  this  spot. 

In  stature  the  modern  Japanese  average  slightly  below  160 
cm.  and  are  thus  distinctly  short.  The  skin  color  is  usually  fair 
and  slightly  yellowish,  but  there  is  not  a little  local  variation, 
and  distinctly  fair,  rosy  complexions  are  sometimes  seen,  as  well 
as  others  quite  clearly  brownish.  The  hair  is  in  general  straight 

1 Baelz,  1885;  Matsumara,  1918,  1919  a. 


292 


ASIA 


and  black,  although  wavy  or  even  curly  forms  occasionally  occur. 
The  Mongoloid  eye  is  almost  always  present  in  some  degree. 

Any  attempt  to  identify  the  traditional  immigrant  groups 
with  these  several  types  must,  until  adequate  archaeological  ma- 
terial is  available,  be  premature.  It  may,  however,  be  tenta- 
tively suggested  that  the  Izumo  group  was  probably  in  the  main 
Alpine;  the  Yamato  may  be  suspected  to  have  had  a consider- 
able Caspian  element,  whereas  the  invaders  under  Jimmu  Tenno, 
who  came  from  Kiushu  and  conquered  the  southern  portion  of 
Nippon,  were  probably  in  the  main  of  Palae-Alpine  type,  although 
doubtless  with  some  Caspian  and  probably  Negroid  admixture. 

The  people  of  the  Riu-kiu  Islands,1  which  extend  from  Kiushu 
southward  almost  to  Formosa,  present  several  features  of  inter- 
est. They  have  a much  larger  dolichocephalic  element  than  the 
population  of  the  adjacent  parts  of  Kiushu.  In  stature  they  are 
shorter  than  the  average  Japanese,  their  skin  color  is  darker, 
their  hair  frequently  wavy  and  more  abundant  on  the  body  than 
in  the  case  of  the  Japanese  of  central  Nippon.  Unfortunately 
no  data  are  given  in  regard  to  the  character  of  the  nose,  but  ten- 
tatively we  may  regard  the  characteristics  above  noted  as  sug- 
gesting that  the  long-headed  elements  present  are  in  the  main 
the  Proto- Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid,  found  strongly  repre- 
sented at  the  opposite  or  northern  extremity  of  the  island  archi- 
pelagoes, among  the  Ainu.  Thus  the  ancient  Neolithic  stratum 
in  Japan  was  split  by  the  incoming  later  peoples  who  poured  in 
from  Korea,  the  major  portion  being  driven  north  and  surviving 
as  the  Ainu,  the  minor  being  forced  southward  and  later  largely 
absorbed  in  the  smaller  islands  of  the  Riu-kiu. 

1 Baelz,  1911;  Matsumara,  1919  b. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  EASTERN  PLATEAUS 
I.  Mongolia 

The  eastern  wing  of  the  great  plateau  belt  is  divisible  into 
three  subdivisions,  which  are  distinct  not  only  geographically 
but  in  their  racial  history — Mongolia,  Eastern  or  Chinese  Tur- 
kestan, and  Tibet.  The  first  of  these  consists  of  a series  of  rolling 
plateaus,  ranging  from  three  to  nearly  five  thousand  feet  in 
elevation.  The  northern  limits  are  formed  by  the  Altai,  Sayan, 
and  other  ranges,  and  by  the  higher,  now  much  dissected  pla- 
teaus of  the  region  about  Lake  Baikal  and  the  upper  Amur 
River.  On  the  east  the  plateau  falls  off  in  a steep  escarpment 
to  the  lowlands  of  Manchuria  and  northern  China,  broken  only 
by  the  gap  through  which  the  Yellow  River  flows,  while  on  the 
south  the  great  ranges  which  form  the  northern  border  of  the 
high  Tibetan  plateau,  rise  like  a giant  wall.  To  the  west  Mon- 
golia has  no  definite  physiographic  boundary,  for  the  plateau 
decreases  in  elevation  and  runs  out  into  three  arms,  divided  from 
each  other  by  the  Tian-shan  and  Altai  ranges.  The  southern- 
most of  these  forms  the  great  basin  of  Eastern  Turkestan;  north 
of  the  Tian-shan  and  between  it  and  the  Altai  lies  the  broad 
corridor  of  Dzungaria,  opening  out  onto  the  steppes  of  southern 
Siberia;  while  north  of  the  Altai  and  hemmed  in  on  three  sides 
by  mountain  ranges,  is  the  basin  of  Kobdo.  Except  along  its 
mountain  borders  on  the  north,  west,  and  south,  which  are  in 
varying  degree  forested,  Mongolia  is  throughout  an  area  of 
steppe  and  desert,  the  true  desert,  however,  being  of  limited 
extent. 

The  only  data  as  yet  available  in  regard  to  the  ancient  popu- 
lation of  Mongolia  consist  of  the  two  crania  reported  by  Talko- 
Hryncewicz1  from  the  Trans-Baikal  region  along  the  northern 

1 Talko-Hryncewicz,  1897. 

293 


294 


ASIA 


border.  These  are  apparently  of  Neolithic  age,  one  being  clearly 
Palae-Alpine,  the  other,  which  is  incomplete,  is  on  the  border 
line  of  dolichocephaly,  and  shows  that  at  this  early  period  a 
long-headed  element  was  certainly  present  in  this  portion  of 
Mongolia  at  least. 

The  modern  inhabitants  of  Mongolia  are,  with  two  excep- 
tions, all  Mongols.  These  exceptions  are  (i)  the  Chinese  colo- 
nists along  the  eastern  and  southern  borders  and  in  the  irrigable 
oases  of  southern  Dzungaria,  and  (2)  the  Turkish-speaking  Kir- 
giz and  other  tribes  in  parts  of  the  Altai  and  Tian-shan  ranges. 
The  Mongols  themselves  are  divisible  into  an  eastern  group, 
comprising  the  Kalkas  and  Mongols  of  Inner  Mongolia,  and  the 
Buriats  of  the  region  about  Lake  Baikal;  and  a western  group, 
formed  by  the  Kalmuck,  who  are  mainly  in  Dzungaria.  In 
recent  years  some  of  the  Buriats  have  forced  their  way  far  to 
the  northeast  into  the  basin  of  the  Lena,  thus  passing  outside 
the  limits  of  Mongolia.  All  the  Mongol  peoples  speak  closely 
related  languages,  which  are  related  to  the  Turko-Tatar,  and 
form  a branch  of  the  great  Ural-Altaic  stock. 

The  greater  part  of  our  data  in  regard  to  the  physical  type  of 
the  Mongols  comes  from  the  Kalmuck1  and  Buriat,2  the  Kalka 
Mongols  not  having  been  as  yet  adequately  studied.  In  stature 
all  the  Mongol  peoples  are  below  the  medium,  ranging  from 
about  161  cm.  in  the  case  of  the  Kalka  to  163  cm.  among  the 
Kahnuck  and  Buriat.  The  western  or  Kalmuck  group  has  in 
general  a white-rosy  complexion,  which  in  the  Kalka  and  Buriat 
becomes  distinctly  yellowish.  The  hair  is,  with  few  exceptions, 
dark  or  black  and  straight,  although  reddish  tones  sometimes 
occur.  The  eyes  are  dark,  and  in  the  case  of  the  Kalmuck,  at 
least,  show  the  Mongoloid  fold  only  in.  persons  under  forty  years 
of  age.  In  the  eastern  group  this  feature  is  much  more  pro- 
nounced. All  the  Mongol  peoples  are  strongly  and  preponder- 
antly brachy cephalic,  but  the  types  present  show  significant 


1 Ivanovsky,  1891,  1896;  Kollmann,  1885  a;  Talko-Hryncewicz,  1902;  Ten  Kate, 
1882;  Reicher,  1913-14;  Korolev,  1903;  Fridolin,  1901. 

2 Bogdanov,  1878-79  g;  Fridolin,  op.  cit. 


THE  EASTERN  PLATEAUS 


295 


variations.  In  the  Kalmuck  the  Mongoloid  type  is  dominant, 
followed  in  order  by  the  Palae-Alpine,  the  Ural,  and  the  Alpine. 
Of  dolichocephalic  factors  there  is  present  but  the  merest  trace, 
except  among  those  Kalmucks  settled  on  the  shores  of  the  Cas- 
pian in  southern  Russia,  who  have  a small  long-headed  element 
of  uncertain  type.  The  Buriat,  on  the  other  hand,  show  a pre- 
dominance of  the  Alpine  type,  the  subsidiary  factors  being  the 
Mongoloid  and  Palae-Alpine.  The  Ural  type,  which  was  quite 
important  among  the  Kalmuck,  here  practically  disappears.  A 
typical  example  of  the  Mongol  is  given  in  the  Kalmuck  portrait 
on  Plate  XX,  Fig.  4. 

The  significance  of  the  difference  between  the  Buriat  and 
Kalmuck  is  not  yet  clear,  in  large  part  because  of  the  lack  of 
information  in  regard  to  the  other  Mongol  peoples  and  the  popu- 
lation of  the  Sayan-Altai  border  country.  Some  light  appears, 
however,  to  be  thrown  on  the  problem  by  the  few  data  accessible 
in  regard  to  these  latter.  Much  of  this  mountain  border  is  oc- 
cupied by  Turko-Tatar  speaking  folk,  such  as  the  Soyot,1  Urian- 
khai,  Telenget,2  Black  Tatars,  Teles,  etc.3,  most  of  whom  live  on 
the  forested  northern  slopes  of  the  ranges  on  the  upper  tribu- 
taries of  the  Yenesei  and  Obi.  Although  all  speaking  related 
languages,  these  various  tribes  are  commonly  regarded  as  be- 
longing in  two  groups,  an  older  stratum  by  some  thought  to 
have  been  originally  Finnic  or  Samoyede  in  speech,  and  a more 
recent  Turko-Tatar  stratum,  supposed  to  have  overlaid  and 
largely  assimilated  the  older  peoples,  perhaps  as  recently  as  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  We  have  data  only  for  the  Telen- 
get, classed  as  belonging  to  the  later  group.  Analysis  of  the 
measurements  reveals  the  interesting  fact  that  this  people  may 
be  said  to  stand  about  midway  between  the  western  or  Kalmuck 
Mongols  and  the  Buriat  as  representative  of  the  eastern  group. 
The  primary  factor  among  the  Telenget  is  the  Palae-Alpine,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Mongoloid  (which  was  dominant  in  the  Kalmuck) 
and  the  Alpine  (dominant  in  the  Buriat).  Since  none  of  the 


1 Goroshchenko,  1901;  Silinich,  1901. 

3 Ivanovski,  op.  cit. 


“Lutsenko,  1902;  Reicher,  op.  cit . 


296 


ASIA 


other  Turko-Tatar  tribes,  from  which  we  have  material,  such 
as  the  Kirgiz,  Uzbeg,  and  Russian  Tatars  (?),  comprise  any  con- 
siderable Mongoloid  factor,  the  conclusion  seems  justified  that 
this  element  present  in  the  Telenget  is  derived  from  admixture 
with  some  Mongol  group,  and  is  thus  primarily  a characteristic 
of  the  Mongol  people.  No  data  which  can  be  analyzed  are  avail- 
able for  any  other  of  the  border  tribes,  and  it  can  only  be  said 
that  the  Soyot  and  Uriankhai  of  the  upper  Yenesei  region,  ap- 
pear to  comprise  a considerable  element  of  the  Mongoloid  type; 
whereas  the  Black  Tatars  have  a surprisingly  large  dolicho- 
cephalic factor,  which  is  apparently  Caspian. 

We  are  able  thus  to  trace  a strong  element  of  the  Mongoloid 
type  throughout  the  border  tribes,  who  are  not  linguistically 
affiliated  with  the  Mongols,  and  who  may  be  regarded  either  as 
Mongols,  Tatarized  both  in  speech  and  physical  type,  or,  less 
probably,  as  originally  Tatar  folk,  Mongolized  to  some  extent 
physically.  This  suggests  an  explanation  for  the  strength  of  the 
Alpine  factor  among  the  Buriat,  viz.,  that  they  represent  a group, 
originally  comparable  with  the  Kalmuck,  who  have  been  “Al- 
pinized”  either  by  admixture  in  recent  times  with  the  primarily 
Alpine  Tunguse  peoples  of  the  region  about  Lake  Baikal,  or 
much  earlier,  during  the  period  when  most  of  Mongolia  was  held 
by  Turko-Tatar  rather  than  by  Mongol  peoples.  This  latter 
possibility  leads  us  into  a brief  consideration  of  the  history  of 
Mongolia,  which  may  aid  in  clearing  up  the  whole  problem. 

Our  earliest  knowledge  of  the  Mongolian  area  is  derived  from 
Chinese  sources.  From  them  we  learn  that  at  least  as  far  back 
as  the  beginning  of  the  first  millennium  B.  C.,  and  perhaps  a 
thousand  years  earlier,  eastern  Mongolia  at  least  was  occupied 
by  a nomad,  pastoral  people  of  warlike  character,  known  to  the 
Chinese  as  the  Hiungnu.  So  far  as  can  be  determined,  they 
seem  to  have  been  of  Turko-Tatar  speech.  With  these  “bar- 
barians” the  Chinese  were  in  almost  constant  conflict,  and  by 
the  third  century  B.  C.  had  gained  considerable  knowledge  of 
the  whole  country,  and  tell  us  of  tribes  of  similar  type  living  as 
far  west  as  Dzungaria  and  the  Altai,  and  north  to  the  valley  of 


THE  EASTERN  PLATEAUS 


297 


the  Selenga.  Of  any  group  which  can  with  any  certainty  be 
identified  as  Mongol  we  hear  nothing.  A little  before  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Christian  era  a portion  of  the  Hiungnu  were, 
under  the  combined  attack  of  the  Chinese  and  certain  Tunguse 
tribes  of  Manchuria,  forced  to  flee  westward,  passing  through 
Dzungaria  and  ultimately  appearing  in  Europe,  under  their 
leader  Attila,  as  the  Huns.  From  then  on  until  the  latter  part 
of  the  twelfth  century  Mongolia  continued  to  be  occupied  by  the 
remainder  of  the  Hiungnu  and  other  related  tribes,  which,  one 
after  the  other,  built  up  powerful  Turkish  kingdoms,  and  in  a 
never-ending  stream  poured  westward  through  Dzungaria  into 
Turkestan  and  beyond. 

We  first  hear  of  the  Mongols  in  the  seventh  century  as  a 
small  and  unimportant  tribe  living  east  and  southeast  of  Lake 
Baikal,  holding  the  fertile  meadows  and  pastures  of  the  moun- 
tains along  the  Mongolian  border.  Not,  however,  until  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century  did  they  attain  importance,  when,  under 
the  genius  of  Khengis  Khan,  chief  of  a small  Mongol  tribe  on  the 
Onon  River,  they  began  their  remarkably  rapid  and  spectacular 
rise.  First  conquering  the  surrounding  Turkish-speaking  tribes, 
then  welding  them  together  with  the  Mongols  into  an  invincible 
horde  of  horsemen,  Khengiz  Khan  conquered  all  of  Mongolia 
and  Central  Asia,  and  then  swept  on  into  Europe.  The  hordes 
of  the  “Mongol”  conquests  were  unquestionably  in  large  part 
of  Turkish  speech  and  origin,  although  mainly  under  Mongol 
leaders,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  due  in  part  to  the  tremendous 
drain  upon  this  Turkish  population  to  supply  the  Mongol  armies, 
and  in  part  to  wholesale  emigration,  that  the  almost  complete 
disappearance  of  the  Turks  from  the  area  of  Mongolia  and  their 
replacement  by  Mongols  was  due.  Doubtless  some  of  the  older 
population  remained,  but  were  completely  Mongolized  under 
the  Mongol  rule. 

Of  this  ancient  Turkish  population,  which  for  so  long  held 
most  of  Mongolia,  we  have  as  yet  no  crania,  although  abundant 
materials  could  doubtless  be  secured  in  the  vicinity  of  their  an- 
cient capital  at  Karakoram.  We  can  only  judge  of  their  phys- 


298 


ASIA 


ical  characteristics  by  the  data  which  we  have  in  regard  to  their 
modern  descendants.  These  are,  as  will  be  shown  in  detail  in 
a later  section,  quite  variable,  in  that  some,  such  as  the  Uzbeg 
and  Uigur  Turks,  the  Kirgiz  of  the  Tian-shan,  and  the  Turki 
peoples  of  the  northern  oases  of  Eastern  Turkestan,  etc.,  are 
primarily  Palae- Alpine,  with  the  Alpine  type  secondary;  whereas 
others,  like  the  Tatars  in  Russia,  the  Kirgiz  of  southern  Siberia, 
etc.,  are  primarily  Alpine.  The  Uigur  and  Uzbeg  are,  however, 
all  things  considered,  the  better  representatives  of  the  more  east- 
ern Turkish  tribes,  whom  we  may  thus  tentatively  regard  as 
having  been  probably  more  Palae-Alpine  than  Alpine  in  type. 
All  of  which  finally  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Mongoloid 
type  was,  in  earlier  times,  probably  rather  closely  restricted  to 
the  northern  border  regions  of  the  Mongolian  plateau;  that  the 
rest  of  Mongolia  was  occupied  by  a mixed  Palae-Alpine  and 
Alpine  people,  who  were  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Turko- 
Tatar  peoples;  and  that  not  until  the  rise  of  the  Mongols  to  polit- 
ical supremacy  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  did  the 
peculiar  type  which  they  represent  more  strongly  than  any  other 
Asiatic  people,  become  distributed  over  the  great  area  of  Mon- 
golia in  which  it  is  found  to-day. 

II.  Eastern  or  Chinese  Turkestan 

Chinese  Turkestan  is  a great  oval  or  rather  pear-shaped  basin, 
whose  narrower,  open  end  faces  the  east,  and  which  is  surrounded 
on  all  other  sides  by  very  high  ranges  of  mountains.  Its  centre 
is  for  the  most  part  utterly  desert,  and  lies  only  about  2,500  feet 
above  the  sea.  Around  this  “dead  heart  of  Asia,”  between  the 
desert  and  the  mountain  wall,  stretches  a string  of  irrigable 
oases,  widely  separated  from  each  other,  in  which  practically  the 
whole  population  lives.  In  the  mountains  are  nomadic  peoples, 
like  the  Kirgiz,  Kara-Kirgiz,  and  a few  Mongols.  The  whole 
basin  is  drained  by  the  Tarim  River,  which  at  the  eastern  end 
dies  out  in  the  great,  reedy  swamps  of  Lop-Nor,  where  live  a 
peculiar  and  very  interesting  fisher-folk,  known  as  Loplik.  Ex- 


THE  EASTERN  PLATEAUS 


299 


cept  for  the  Chinese  colonists,  the  few  Mongol  nomads  in  the 
mountains  on  the  north  and  south,  and  the  Indo-European- 
speaking groups  in  the  Pamirs,  all  the  people  of  Eastern  Tur- 
kestan speak  Turki,  a language  belonging  to  the  Turko-Tatar 
branch  of  the  Ural-Altic  stock. 

We  may  best  trace  the  racial  history  of  this  area  by  begin- 
ning with  a consideration  of  the  modern  population,  most  of  our 
knowledge  of  which  we  owe  to  the  painstaking  investigations  of 
Sir  Aurel  Stein.1  The  great  majority  of  the  population  are  of 
medium  or  slightly  under-medium  stature,  only  the  Loplik  and 
neighboring  Charklik,  and  the  Pamir  peoples  approaching  a stat- 
ure of  170  cm.  In  skin  color  the  bulk  of  the  population  is  de- 
scribed as  white-rosy,  and  all  have  dark  hair  and  eyes,  except 
among  the  Pamir  tribes,  where  lighter  tones  sometimes  occur. 
It  is  noteworthy,  however,  that  among  the  Chinese  of  the  ex- 
treme southeastern  oases  nearly  15  per  cent  of  blue  eyes  are 
found.  The  significance  of  this  will  be  seen  later.  In  character 
the  hair  is  generally  wavy  or  curly,  and  really  straight  only 
among  the  Chinese  colonists. 

In  respect  to  their  physical  type  the  peoples  of  Eastern  Tur- 
kestan are  divisible  into  three  clearly  contrasted  groups,  marked 
by  the  predominance  of  the  Alpine,  the  Palae-Alpine,  and  the  Cas- 
pian types.  The  first  group  comprises  the  Indo-European  Wakhi 
and  Sariqoli  of  the  Pamir  region,  and  probably  the  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  western  and  southwestern  border  and 
oases  (Pakhpo,  Kokyar,  Khotan,  Polu,  Yarkand  ( ?),  Kashgar  ( ?)). 
In  all  of  these  the  Alpine  type  is  strongly  dominant,  and  in  gen- 
eral seems  to  increase  in  importance  westward,  attaining  its 
maximum  (70  per  cent)  among  the  Wakhi.  In  all,  also,  the 
Palas-Alpine  type  is  that  secondary  in  importance,  and  in  all 
except  the  Wakhi  and  people  of  Kokyar,  the  Caspian  type  is 
present  as  a strong  minority.  The  second  group  includes  the 
Kirgiz  of  the  Tian-shan,  the  occupants  of  the  northern  oases 
(Kelpin,  Dolan,  Korla,  Turfan,  Hami)  and  those  of  the  southern 
oases  east  of  Khotan  (Keriya,  Niva,  Charklik).  Among  all  these 

1 Stein,  1921.  For  resum£,  see  Joyce,  1912. 


300 


ASIA 


the  Palse-Alpine  type  is  strongly  dominant,  the  Alpine  being  sec- 
ondary; only  in  Hami  and  Charklik,  the  easternmost  of  the 
northern  and  southern  oases  respectively,  does  the  Caspian  fac- 
tor become  important. 

The  third  group  includes  the  Loplik  of  Lop-Nor  and  the  Chi- 
nese of  Nanhu  and  Tunhuang,  small  settlements  two  or  three 
hundred  miles  farther  east,  near  Sachu,  on  the  borders  of  the 
province  of  Kansu.  In  this  group  the  Caspian  type  is  domi- 
nant, the  Pake-Alpine  being  secondary,  and  the  Alpine  being 
present  only  as  a rather  small  minority  and  quite  outweighed 
among  the  Chinese  by  platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  factors. 

The  explanation  of  these  facts  seems  to  me  best  given  as  fol- 
lows. The  dominance  of  the  Alpine  type  in  the  west  is  due  to 
the  influence  of  the  almost  purely  Alpine  population  of  the  Pamir 
region  and  parts  of  Western  Turkestan,  who  have  from  very  early 
times  had  very  close  relations  with  Kashgar,  Yarkand,  and  Kho- 
tan.  The  fundamental  stratum  of  the  population  throughout  is 
of  the  Pake-Alpine  type,  and  one,  therefore,  with  that  character- 
istic of  the  Uigur  and  Uzbeg  Turks.  The  presence  of  the  strong 
Caspian  factor  among  the  Loplik  and  Chinese  of  the  Kansu  bor- 
der, must  be  due  to  the  survival  there  of  some  early  penetration 
of  this  type  from  the  west  or  northwest,  since  within  relatively 
recent  historic  times  no  people  of  this  character  is  known  to 
have  come  into  Eastern  Turkestan. 

If  we  turn  to  the  early  history  of  this  area,  a probable  cor- 
roboration of  this  latter  view  is  found.  In  the  third  century 
B.  C.  the  Chinese  refer  to  a people  called  by  them  Yuechi,  who 
were  different  from  the  Hiungnu,  and  who  then  occupied  much 
of  western  Kansu.  In  the  second  century  B.  C.  these  people 
were  attacked  by  the  Hiungnu,  and  most  of  them  driven  west 
and  north  to  Hami  and  the  Tian-shan  region.  Later  they  moved 
still  farther  west  into  Western  Turkestan,  where  on  the  ruins  of 
the  Greco-Bactrian  kingdoms  they  established  the  new  state  of 
Tokharia,  which  for  some  time  was  a great  power  in  this  portion 
of  Asia.  The  recent  archaeological  investigations  of  Stein  have 
shown  that  in  the  southern  oases  of  Eastern  Turkestan,  between 


THE  EASTERN  PLATEAUS 


301 


Kenya  and  Lop-Nor,  there  were,  in  the  centuries  preceding  the 
Christian  era,  a people  called  the  Tokhari,  who  spoke  an  Indo- 
European  language,  related  more  closely  to  the  Greek  and  Latin 
than  to  Persian  and  Sanskrit;  and  that  this  language  continued 
in  use  here  into  the  early  centuries  of  our  era.  There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  these  Tokhari  were  related  to  the  Yuechi,  and 
were  driven  from  their  homes  at  the  same  time,  removing  with 
them  westward,  where  the  combined  people  established  them- 
selves anew  as  the  Tokharian  state.  Now  Franke1  suggests  that 
the  Tokhari  and  Yuechi  represent  a great  thrust  of  Indo-Euro- 
pean peoples  from  the  region  about  the  Caspian,  which  at  an 
early  but  as  yet  unknown  period  penetrated  by  way  of  Dzun- 
garia and  the  Tian-shan  region  to  the  southern  oases  and  western 
Kansu.  In  discussing  the  racial  history  of  China  it  was  sug- 
gested that  probably  very  much  earlier  than  this  there  had  been 
another  similar  great  thrust  of  Caspian  peoples,  which  had  pene- 
trated much  farther  and  profoundly  influenced  the  character  of 
the  population  of  the  whole  of  the  eastern  borderlands.  This 
movement,  then,  which  is  supposed  to  have  brought  the  Indo- 
European  Tokhari  and  Yuechi,  would  thus  be  a repetition  on  a 
smaller  scale  of  that  ancient  drift.  If  this  theory  of  the  source 
of  the  Yuechi  is  true,  they  would  in  all  probability  have  brought 
into  western  Kansu  a strong  Caspian  factor,  and  we  may  there- 
fore ascribe  the  presence  of  this  element  among  the  Loplik  and 
Chinese  of  Sachu  to-day,  as  due  to  the  assimilation  of  the  rem- 
nants of  the  Yuechi,  who  did  not  flee  to  the  west.  That  such  a 
remnant  did  survive  we  know  from  Chinese  sources,  which  report 
them  as  removing  southward  into  the  Tsaidam  and  northern 
Tibet  for  a while,  and  then  returning  to  their  former  homes  pre- 
cisely in  the  region  occupied  to-day  by  the  Chinese,  among  whom 
this  strong  Caspian  factor  appears.  They  even  survived  there 
as  a recognizable  unit  under  the  name  of  the  Little  Yuechi,  as 
late  as  the  tenth  century. 


1 Franke,  1904. 


302 


ASIA 


III.  Tibet 

The  great  girdle  of  plateaus  and  mountain  uplands  which 
stretches  across  the  continent  of  Asia  from  northeast  to  south- 
west, culminates  in  the  highlands  of  Tibet  and  the  mountain  area 
westward  to  the  Pamirs.  Lying  at  an  elevation  which  ranges 
from  ten  to  seventeen  thousand  feet,  the  whole  region  is,  with 
the  exception  of  some  border  sections,  barren  and  treeless,  yet 
in  spite  of  the  rigorous  climate  agriculture  is  possible  where  irri- 
gation can  be  obtained  up  to  elevations  of  as  much  as  15,000 
feet.  Guarded  on  the  south  by  the  great  chain  of  the  Himalayas, 
which  bars  it  off  from  the  Indo-Gangetic  plain,  on  the  north  by 
the  ranges  of  almost  equal  height  which  separate  it  from  the 
low-lying  basin  of  Eastern  Turkestan  and  the  southern  Mongolian 
plateau,  and  on  the  west  by  the  high  and  difficult  mountain 
masses  toward  the  Pamirs,  Tibet  is  in  any  real  sense  of  the  term 
open  only  toward  the  east,  where  the  plateaus,  scarred  by  the 
tremendous  canyons  of  the  upper  Salwen,  Mekong,  and  Yangtse 
rivers,  or  in  the  less  difficult  country  about  Koko-Nor  and  the 
upper  Yellow  River,  break  down  into  the  rugged  uplands  of 
western  China.  Except  in  the  border  region  of  Kashmir  and  the 
valley  of  the  Indus  and  its  tributaries  below  the  great  bend  near 
Gilgit,  where  Indo-European  languages  related  to  those  of  north- 
ern India  are  spoken,  and  in  the  northeast  in  the  Tsaidam  and 
the  region  about  Koko-Nor,  where  there  is  a considerable  Mon- 
gol population,  the  people  of  the  whole  of  this  area  speak  Tibetan 
or  related  dialects. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  people 
of  the  Tibetan  region  is  dependent  upon  a handful  of  crania  of 
somewhat  uncertain  provenance  and  the  measurements  of  a few 
score  of  individuals,  for  the  most  part  from  the  borders  of  the 
region  only.  The  most  extensive  data  come  from  the  western 
section  in  the  vicinity  of  the  upper  Indus.  For  the  Kashmiris 
no  individual  measurements  are  available,  but  Ujfalvy’s1  aver- 
ages seem  to  make  it  clear  that  they  are  essentially  like  the  pop- 

1 Ujfalvy,  1896. 


THE  EASTERN  PLATEAUS 


303 


illation  of  the  Punjab  in  northwestern  India,  i.  e.,  considerably 
above  the  medium  stature,  rather  variable  in  skin  color,  with 
wavy  hair,  and  primarily  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types, 
with  some  admixture  of  Negroid  factors.  The  Dards,  who  oc- 
cupy the  Indus  valley  region  between  Kashmir  and  Gilgit,  are 
apparently  similar,  but  with  an  appreciable  brachycephalic  ele- 
ment, in  the  main  Alpine.  The  isolated  and  peculiar  little  group 
of  the  Burusheski1  just  under  the  Pamirs,  is  on  the  whole  of  much 
the  same  character,  although  the  brachycephalic  factor  here 
seems  more  largely  Palae-Alpine.  In  complexion  these  latter 
folk  are  very  light,  almost  fair,  and  occasionally  have  hazel  or 
even  gray-blue  eyes. 

The  Baltis2  and  Ladakhis2  of  the  upper  Indus  valley,  although 
Tibetan  in  speech,  present  much  similarity  to  these  western 
Himalayan  peoples.  The  Baltis,  like  the  Dards,  have  a prepon- 
derant Caspian-Mediterranean  factor,  but,  curiously,  a smaller 
Alpine  element,  and  are  much  shorter  in  stature.  The  Ladakhis 
are  very  evidently  more  mixed,  for,  although  they  have  a ma- 
jority of  dolichocephalic  factors,  these  are  pretty  evenly  divided 
between  leptorrhine  and  platyrrhine  forms,  the  latter  being  twice 
as  important  as  in  the  case  of  the  Baltis,  and  three  times  that 
found  in  the  Dards.  Both  Baltis  and  Ladakhis  show  not  infre- 
quently the  Mongoloid  eye. 

Turning  lastly  to  the  data  for  Lahoul3  and  Kulu,3  which  dis- 
tricts he  on  the  southern  side  of  the  main  Himalayan  divide, 
toward  the  plains  of  northern  India,  we  find  that  the  people  of 
both  sections  are  primarily  dolichocephalic,  those  of  Kulu,  which 
is  nearer  the  plains,  more  so  than  the  Lahoulis.  But,  while  in 
both  the  Caspian-Mediterranean  factors  are  the  most  important, 
the  people  of  Lahoul  have  a very  small,  those  of  Kulu  a very 
considerable,  Proto-Australoid-Proto-Negroid  factor,  whereas  in 
respect  to  the  Alpine  element  the  conditions  are  reversed,  the 
Lahoulis  having  a large,  the  Kulu  people  a small  proportion. 

Before  attempting  to  explain  and  harmonize  these  facts,  we 
must  present  the  scanty  information  we  possess  in  regard  to  the 

1 Dixon,  M.  S.  2Ujfalvy,  1881,  1896.  3 Holland,  1902. 


304 


ASIA 


Tibetans  proper.  From  the  measurements1  given  it  appears  that 
the  population  of  the  southeastern  border  region  south  of  Lhassa 
is  somewhat  under  medium  stature,  with  straight  black  hair  and 
frequently  Mongoloid  eyes.  They  are  primarily  brachycephalic, 
the  Alpine  type  being  that  most  important,  although  in  some 
sections,  such  as  the  Tsanpo  valley,  the  Palae- Alpine  usurps  first 
place.  The  Caspian-Mediterranean  factors,  so  strong  in  the  west, 
here  dwindle  to  small  proportions,  although  apparently  in  greater 
strength  in  the  easterly  province  of  Kham  than  in  the  Tsanpo 
valley.  The  platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  factors  seem  every- 
where more  important  than  the  leptorrhine,  however.  If  these 
southeastern  Tibetans  are  compared  with  the  people  of  Bhutan, 
just  to  the  south,  they  are  found  to  be  very  similar,  so  that  there 
seems  to  be  a substantial  unity  between  the  people  of  southeast- 
ern Tibet  and  those  speaking  related  languages,  who  occupy  the 
southern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas. 

For  the  rest  of  Tibet  we  have  no  metrical  data.  From  the 
descriptions,  however,  it  seems  clear  that  both  the  brachycephalic 
and  dolichocephalic  forms  are  widely  scattered  and  recognizable. 
The  latter  is  said  by  Waddell  to  be  most  prevalent  among  the 
upper  or  ruling  classes. 

From  the  foregoing  it  seems  to  be  established  that  in  the 
western  portion  of  the  Tibetan  plateau  area,  both  in  the  upper 
Indus  region  and  on  the  southern  or  Indian  slope  of  the  Hima- 
layas, the  population,  irrespective  of  linguistic  affiliations,  is  pri- 
marily dolichocephalic,  the  most  important  element  being  a Cas- 
pian-Mediterranean blend,  comparable  to  that  forming  the  mass 
of  the  population  in  northwestern  India.  The  Proto-Australoid 
and  Proto-Negroid  factors  become  more  abundant,  both  as  one 
ascends  the  Indus  or  passes  from  the. plateaus  southward  toward 
the  Indo-Gangetic  plain.  The  people  of  the  southeastern  por- 
tion of  the  region,  on  the  other  hand,  are  primarily  brachy- 
cephalic, the  Alpine  type  being  generally  dominant.  The  follow- 
ing tentative  explanation  of  these  conditions  may  be  suggested. 
The  earliest  stratum  of  population  in  the  whole  area  was,  like 

1 Risley,  1892;  Turner,  1906,  1913;  Waddell,  1901. 


THE  EASTERN  PLATEAUS 


305 


that  of  the  other  sections  of  the  plateau  belt,  primarily  brachy- 
cephalic,  although  whether  Alpine  or  Palas-Alpine  it  is,  in  the 
absence  of  any  archaeological  data,  impossible  to  say.  An  inva- 
sion of  the  region  then  took  place  by  a people  primarily  of  Cas- 
pian-Mediterranean  type  in  the  main,  by  way  of  the  upper  Indus 
valley,  spreading  thence  eastward,  a second  and  weaker  stream 
coming  from  the  northeast  by  way  of  the  Tsaidam,  where  at  the 
end  of  the  second  millennium  B.  C.  the  Chinese  report  the  pres- 
ence of  a non-Tibetan,  non-Turkish  people.  The  presence  of  the 
platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  factors  still  remains  to  be  accounted 
for.  These  seem,  from  the  very  few  crania  available,  to  be  pri- 
marily Proto-Australoid.  Now  it  has  been  seen  that  this  and 
the  Proto-Negroid  types  were  both  present,  apparently  in 
strength,  in  southern  China  and  Indo-China  in  Neolithic  times, 
and  that  isolated  groups  of  Negroid  peoples  still  continue  to 
exist  along  the  Chinese-Tibetan  border.  Since  then  these  fac- 
tors among  the  Tibetan  population  appear  to  increase  as  one 
goes  eastward,  it  is  probable  that  we  may  assume  that  this  type 
came  into  Tibet  from  the  eastern  borderlands. 

It  is  tempting,  although  certainly  premature,  to  regard  the 
Caspian-Mediterranean  influx  in  the  west  as  a part  of,  and  con- 
temporaneous with,  the  great  wave  of  peoples  of  these  types 
which  streamed  into  northwestern  India  in  the  second  millen- 
nium B.  C.  If,  as  seems  likely,  a portion  of  these  immigrants 
came  into  India  down  the  Indus  valley,  we  have  only  to  suppose 
that  some,  instead  of  descending  the  stream  from  its  great  bend 
near  Gilgit,  ascended  it,  passing  thus  into  Baltistan  and  Ladakh 
and  southward  across  easy  passes  to  the  Vale  of  Kashmir.  The 
cultural  and  linguistic  difficulties  in  the  way  of  such  an  assump- 
tion are  by  no  means  insuperable,  while  on  the  purely  physical 
side  the  theory  has  much  to  recommend  it. 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE  WESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  THE  CAUCASUS 
I.  The  Iranian  Plateau 

What  is  generally  known  as  the  Iranian  Plateau  forms  the 
eastern  and  larger  portion  of  the  western  half  of  the  great  series 
of  uplands  which  reach  across  the  Asiatic  continent  from  Asia 
Minor  to  Mongolia  and  beyond.  It  extends  from  the  Armenian 
highlands  and  the  borders  of  Mesopotamia  in  the  west  to  the 
Suleiman  and  other  ranges  along  the  western  side  of  the  lower 
valley  of  the  Indus,  and  from  the  desert  lowlands  of  Western 
Turkestan  and  the  Caspian  Sea  southward  to  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the  Indian  Ocean.  Politically  the  area  to-day  is  divided  be- 
tween Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Baluchistan.  Lying  for  the  most 
part  at  an  elevation  of  from  three  to  six  thousand  feet,  it  com- 
prises in  its  central  and  eastern  portion  large  areas  of  desert  or 
sub-desert  land,  and  much  of  the  remainder  is  rugged  and  moun- 
tainous. Only  in  the  west  do  we  find  any  considerable  area  of 
desirable  land.  There  are  few  rivers,  and  the  majority  of  these, 
like  the  Helmund,  flow  into  closed  basins  or  into  saline  lakes  like 
Urumia.  In  the  southwest,  however,  some  streams  like  the  Ka- 
run,  rising  on  the  plateau,  break  through  the  border  ranges  into 
the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  affording  thus  highways  leading 
from  the  uplands  to  the  rich  lowlands,  where  already,  at  the 
dawn  of  history,  a great  civilization  flourished. 

Concerning  the  ancient  population  of  the  Iranian  Plateau,  we 
have  no  data  whatever,  and  can  only  reconstruct  the  conditions 
on  the  basis  of  history  and  what  is  known  of  the  surrounding 
peoples.  As  the  present  character  of  the  inhabitants  cannot 
easily  be  understood  without  something  in  the  way  of  a work- 
ing hypothesis  in  regard  to  the  earlier  period,  the  following  brief 
outline  is  suggested. 


306 


THE  WESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  THE  CAUCASUS  307 


We  may  probably  assume  that  the  earliest  traceable  popu- 
lation of  the  region  was  of  brachycephalic  type,  probably  in  the 
main  Alpine,  and  comparable  to  that  which  we  are  also  obliged 
to  assume  for  the  Anatolian  plateau  farther  west.  In  speech 
these  early  peoples  were  probably  non-Indo-European.  In  the 
south,  along  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  there  was  a narrow 
fringe  of  dark-skinned,  frizzly-haired  folk  of  simple  culture, 
blends  perhaps  of  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- Australoid  types, 
comparable  with  a large  part  of  the  population  of  southern  India 
to-day.  At  a period  still  uncertain,  but  which  must  go  back 
toward  the  beginning  of  the  second  millennium  B.  C.,  the  pla- 
teau was  invaded  from  the  north  by  an  Indo-European-speaking 
people,  probably  in  the  main  a blend  of  Caspian  and  Mediterra- 
nean types.  Some  of  these  turned  eastward,  and  in  the  course 
of  time  made  their  way  down  from  the  plateau  into  northern 
India,  where  they  formed  part  of  the  ancestors  of  the  modern 
Hindus.  The  other  portion  of  these  invaders  (who  brought  with 
them  the  horse  from  Central  Asia)  pushed  southwestward  into 
the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  and  under  the  name  of  Kassites  con- 
quered Babylonia  and  ruled  it  for  several  hundred  years.  This 
movement  of  Indo-European  peoples  seems  to  be  the  first  clearly 
traceable  wave  of  Caspian-Mediterranean  type,  others  of  which, 
from  this  time  on  for  some  1,500  years,  continued  at  intervals  to 
invade  the  western  Asiatic  uplands,  both  from  the  region  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  and  from  Europe  across  the  Bosphorus.  We  do 
not  know  what  became  of  the  Kassites,  and  after  their  destruc- 
tion some  may  have  returned  to  the  plateau,  where  others  of 
their  kin  may  have  lingered.  We  do,  however,  know  that  in  the 
first  millennium  B.  C.  we  find  new  immigrants  of  the  same  type, 
settling  in  the  better  western  portions  of  the  plateau  as  the 
Medes  and  the  Persians,  who  established  themselves  as  the  rul- 
ing aristocracy  among  the  conquered  older  population. 

The  results  from  the  racial  point  of  view  of  these  invasions 
were,  I believe,  in  the  main  two.  First,  as  a consequence  of  the 
pressure  of  the  invading  peoples,  some  of  the  older  brachycephalic 
folk  were  forced  out  southeastward  toward  the  region  of  the  In- 


308 


ASIA 


dus  delta  and  so  on  down  the  western  coast  of  the  Indian  penin- 
sula; others  perhaps  across  to  Oman,  in  southern  Arabia,  where 
they  contributed  a strong  brachycephalic  factor  to  the  popula- 
tion. Second,  the  remainder  of  the  more  original,  brachyce- 
phalic peoples  became  gradually  blended  with  their  Caspian- 
Mediterranean  conquerors,  whose  language  almost  wholly  re- 
placed their  own.  The  Kassites  of  the  second  and  the  Medes 
and  Persians  of  the  first  millennium  B.  C.  were  concentrated,  so 
far  as  we  know,  in  the  western  part  of  the  plateau;  the  Medes 
largely  in  what  are  the  modern  Persian  provinces  of  Kurdistan, 
Irak,  and  Luristan,  the  Persians  farther  south,  in  Ispahan,  Fars, 
and  Arabistan.  Here,  at  least,  the  immigrant  Caspian-Mediter- 
ranean  type  must  have  exerted  its  maximum  effect.  In  one 
other  portion  of  the  plateau  we  might  expect  that  the  immigrants 
would  have  produced  a lasting  modification  of  the  population, 
i.  e.,  in  the  valleys  along  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Hindu-Kush, 
where  the  Hindu  ancestral  stream  may  well  have  left  some  rem- 
nants on  its  eastward  journey  through  Afghanistan. 

From  the  period  of  the  Medo-Persian  kingdoms  for  2,000 
years  or  so,  new  immigrants  from  time  to  time  came  to  add  to 
the  racial  complex  of  the  Iranian  Plateau.  Hellenic  culture  was 
spread  in  the  Seleucidian  period  by  colonists  and  traders  from 
Greece  and  Macedonia,  bringing  probably  both  Mediterranean- 
Caspian  and  Alpine  factors;  while  later,  Parthians  and  other  peo- 
ples from  Turkestan  and  vicinity,  bringing  Caspian  and  Alpine 
elements,  exerted  some  influence  in  Khorassan  and  western  Af- 
ghanistan. After  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  however, 
the  character  of  the  racial  elements  brought  in  underwent  a 
change,  since  the  Ephthalites,  Huns,  Turks  and  Mongols,  who 
followed  one  another  at  intervals  of  a century  or  so,  were  all 
primarily  brachycephalic,  and  brought  probably  a goodly  factor 
of  Palse-Alpine  type,  together  with  something  of  the  Mongoloid. 
Only  the  Arab  conquest  in  the  seventh  century  and  the  Turko- 
man could  have  brought  any  considerable  dolichocephalic  ele- 
ments. The  net  result  apparently  of  the  period  since  the  Arab 
conquest  has  been,  in  the  first  place,  the  reintroduction  of  a 


THE  WESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  THE  CAUCASUS  309 


considerable  brachycephalic  element,  and,  in  the  second,  the 
crowding  of  the  older  population,  in  some  measure,  into  the  less 
fertile  and  desirable  areas.  Unlike  the  Medo-Persians,  these 
later  conquerors  did  not  impose  their  language  upon  the  con- 
quered. 

We  may  now  turn  to  the  present  population  and  see  how  far 
it  reflects  this  history.  The  majority  of  the  available  data1 
come  from  the  western  mountainous  border  districts,  and  from 
those  in  the  east,  in  Afghanistan  and  Baluchistan.  For  the  for- 
mer section  individual  measurements  are  not,  as  a rule,  given, 
and  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  note  the  relative  importance  of 
long  and  round  headed  factors  in  the  population.  Among  the 
Kurds,2  the  so-called  Azerbaidjan  Tatars,3  and  the  Mezgliani, 
near  Teheran,4  dolichocephalic  factors  pretty  clearly  prevail;  in 
the  case  of  the  Luris  of  Luristan,  these  are  in  very  large  majority 
and  are  apparently  in  the  main  Caspian-Mediterranean.  That 
there  are  other  much  more  brachycephalic  groups  in  the  same 
region,  however,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  Bakhtiari5  in  the 
district  between  Ispahan  and  Kermanshah  are  probably  strongly 
brachycephalic,  although  here  the  practice  of  cranial  deforma- 
tion must  be  taken  into  consideration.  Other  groups  of  more  or 
less  undefined  “ Persians”  in  this  region  (Hadjemi,  Tadjiks,  etc.) 
show  a high  proportion  of  brachycephalic  factors,  greatly  exceed- 
ing in  this  respect  the  Kurds  and  other  mountaineers.  In  gen- 
eral most  of  these  peoples  are  over  medium  stature,  and  with 
few  exceptions  have  black  or  very  dark  hair  and  eyes,  although 
lighter  shades  of  both  are  occasionally  met  with  among  the 
Azerbaidjan  Tatars,  in  Fars  and  western  Kirman.  The  west- 
ern Persian  area  thus  seems  to  have  a rather  mixed  population, 
whose  basis  apparently  is  brachycephalic,  with  a large  element 
of  dolichocephalic  Caspian-Mediterranean  type,  particularly 
noticeable  among  the  mountain  and  extreme  border  people — 
precisely  the  region  in  which  the  Kassite  and  Medo-Persian  in- 
fluence must  have  been  strongest. 


1 Danilov,  1894;  Houssay,  1887.  2 Nasonov,  1890;  Chantre,  1882. 

3 Chantre,  1892.  * Danilov,  op.  cit.  6 Chantre,  1895. 


310 


ASIA 


In  the  vicinity  of  Susa,  in  the  lowland  on  the  borders  of  the 
Mesopotamian  plain  and  southward  along  the  coast  in  Arabis- 
tan  and  Fars,  a rather  well-marked  Negroid  factor  is  observable. 
These  people  are  said  to  be  shorter  than  the  average  Persian, 
and  to  have  thick  lips  and  broad  noses.  The  only  actual 
measurements  in  this  whole  region  which  we  have,  are  those  of 
Houssay1  at  Disful.  These  indicate  a preponderance  of  Cas- 
pian Mediterranean  factors,  and  only  a small  Proto-Negroid  or 
Proto-Australoid  element. 

For  the  central  portion  of  the  plateau  we  have  little  satisfac- 
tory information.  Houssay1  reports  the  population  here  as  pre- 
vailingly brachy cephalic,  this  character  being  increasingly  ap- 
parent as  one  goes  from  south  to  north.  One  bit  of  very  signifi- 
cant evidence  is  afforded  by  the  tiny  remnant  of  the  old  Persian 
population  known  as  the  Guebres  or  Ghebres,  who  still  retain 
much  of  their  old  pre-Islamic  Zoroastrian  faith,  and  are  to  be 
found  in  parts  of  Yezd  and  Kirman.  All  of  the  few  living  Guebres 
measured2  and  all  the  adult  crania  are  without  exception  doli- 
chocephalic, a mixture  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types.  In 
this  fragment  of  the  old  Persian  people,  surviving  in  their  own 
country,  we  have  apparently,  thus,  confirmation  of  the  evidence 
as  to  their  original  physical  type,  which  thus  accords  with  that 
found  in  the  Kurds,  Luris,  and  other  mountaineers  farther  west. 
This  statement  may  seem  to  be  contradicted  by  the  evidence 
afforded  by  the  Parsees,  a group  of  Persian  people  who  emigrated 
to  Bombay  in  the  seventh  century,  who  have  married  only 
within  their  own  group,  and  who  are  primarily  but  not  exclu- 
sively brachy  cephalic.  I believe  the  contradiction  is  only  ap- 
parent, and  that  the  large  brachycephalic  factor  among  the  Par- 
sees is  to  be  explained  as  due  to  the  fact  that  they  represent  not 
a pure  but  a mixed  group  of  the  Persian  population,  which  by 
the  seventh  century  was  probably  strongly  influenced  by  the 
brachycephalic  immigrants  who  had  come  in  in  recent  times, 
and  by  the  absorption  of  the  old,  underlying  brachycephalic 
population.  The  Guebres  and  Parsees,  on  this  supposition,  rep- 

1 Houssay,  1887.  2 Danilov,  1894. 


THE  WESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  THE  CAUCASUS  311 


resent  respectively  a relatively  pure  and  a much  mixed  group  of 
the  ancient  population. 

For  the  extreme  northeast  we  have  very  limited  but  very 
significant  data.  This  relates  to  the  remote  little  group  of  the 
Kaffir,  living  far  up  in  the  most  inaccessible  portion  of  the  Hindu- 
Kush  range,  whither  they  have  been  apparently  forced  from  a 
previous  habitat  farther  south  upon  the  plateau.  Speaking  a 
very  archaic  Indo-European  language  and  still  preserving  their 
ancient  nature-worship  in  contrast  to  the  fanatically  Mohamme- 
dan Afghans,  they  show1  a large  majority  of  dolichocephalic  fac- 
tors, the  Caspian-Mediterranean  types  being  strongly  predomi- 
nant. In  them  we  may  see,  I believe,  some  of  the  rear-guard  of 
the  great  migratory  drift  which  brought  the  ancestors  of  the 
Hindus  into  India,  who  have  been  forced  back,  little  by  little, 
into  the  mountain  fastnesses  which  they  now  hold. 

On  the  eastern  border  of  the  Iranian  Plateau  are  two  peoples 
who  seem  to  show  marked  differences.  Of  the  physical  type  of 
the  Afghans,  who  occupy  that  portion  of  eastern  Afghanistan 
south  of  the  Hindu-Kush  and  are  but  one,  although  the  ruling 
element,  in  the  welter  of  peoples  which  are  found  in  the  country, 
we  have  little  or  no  knowledge,  except  of  one  or  two  of  the  ex- 
treme border  tribes.  These  Pathans,2  as  they  are  somewhat 
loosely  called,  who  with  the  Afghans  proper  of  Kabul  and  vicin- 
ity speak  an  Indo-European  language,  are  predominantly  Alpine 
in  type,  with  nearly  equal  minorities  of  Caspian-Mediterranean 
and  Palse- Alpine  types.  Their  kinsmen  on  the  Indian  side  of  the 
border,  near  Peshawur,3  have  a much  larger  element  of  the  for- 
mer types.  Of  the  Afghans  proper  we  know  nothing. 

For  the  Baluchistan  region  in  the  southeast  we  possess,  for- 
tunately, more  abundant  data.4  Here,  in  addition  to  the  Baloch, 
who  speak  an  Indo-European  language  and  have  given  their 
name  to  the  country,  are  found  the  Brahuis,  whose  Dravidian 
speech  relates  them  in  some  way  with  the  peoples  of  southern 
India.  There  are  also  some  groups  supposed  to  be  largely  of 


1 Stein,  1921. 

3 Risley,  1892. 


2 Ethnographic  Survey  of  India,  1908,  1909. 
4 Ethnographic  Survey  of  India,  1909. 


312 


ASIA 


Arab  descent.  So  far  as  the  rather  abundant  data  go,  all  of 
these  people  irrespective  of  language,  are  fairly  uniform  in  physi- 
cal type.  All  are,  like  the  Pathan  farther  north,  primarily 
brachycephalic,  with  the  Alpine  type  in  large  majority;  all  show 
a minority  of  Caspian-Mediterranean  type,  comparable  to  that 
among  the  Pathan;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  usually  have  an 
equally  important  or  more  important  Proto-Negroid-Proto-Aus- 
traloid  factor,  which  the  Pathan  lack.  Some,  including  the 
Brahui  and  Baloch  proper,  have  a considerable  factor  of  the 
Palae-Alpine  type. 

These  facts  find  at  least  a plausible  explanation,  if  we  as- 
sume that  the  original  Alpine  population  of  the  eastern  portion 
of  the  Iranian  Plateau  was  less  intensively  affected  than  that 
in  the  west  by  the  dolichocephalic  immigration  of  the  second 
millennium  B.  C.,  which  in  the  east  passed  on  into  India  rather 
than  settle  in  the  rugged  and  rather  unattractive  region  of  the 
plateau  border;  and  also  that  this  old  and  only  partially  sub- 
merged population  of  brachycephalic  type  received  large  rein- 
forcements from  the  people  of  similar  character  from  inner  Asia, 
who  continually  poured  into  and  through  this  region  down  to 
the  late  Middle  Ages. 

One  further  word  may  be  said  in  regard  to  the  Hazara,1  a 
Mongol  people  living  mainly  between  Ghazni  and  Kandahar, 
and  extending  westward  toward  Herat.  These  almost  purely 
brachycephalic  folk  seem  to  show  their  Mongol  ancestry  in  the 
fact  that  the  platyrrhine  types  are  in  large  majority,  which  is 
in  accord  with  what  we  find  among  the  true  Mongols,  among 
whom  the  Mongoloid  and  Palae-Alpine  types  are  strongly  domi- 
nant. 


II.  The  Anatolian  Plateau 

The  western  extremity  of  the  Asiatic  plateau  belt  is  formed 
by  the  Asia  Minor  or  Anatolian  Plateau.  Separated  from  the 
Iranian  Plateau  farther  eastward  by  the  volcanic  region  of 
Armenia,  the  Anatolian  upland  terminates  in  a steep  escarpment 

1 Ethnographic  Survey  of  India,  1909. 


THE  WESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  THE  CAUCASUS  313 


on  the  north  and  south,  to  the  Black  Sea  in  the  former,  and  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  lowlands  of  Mesopotamia  in  the  latter 
instance.  To  the  westward,  where  it  reaches  out  toward  Europe 
and  the  islands  of  the  Aegean,  the  edge  of  the  plateau  is  deeply 
dissected,  and  fingers  out  in  a series  of  peninsulas  and  deep 
inlets,  to  which  the  short  streams  descend  in  tremendous  gorges. 
On  the  south  the  Euphrates,  rising  on  the  plateau,  breaks  through 
the  border  ranges,  affording  a highway  to  Mesopotamia;  on  the 
north  the  Halys  similarly  has  cut  a great  canyon  valley  down 
to  the  Black  Sea.  Most  of  the  rest  of  the  upland  forms  a closed 
basin,  occupied  here  and  there  by  saline  lakes.  Lying  at  an 
elevation  of  2,500-4,000  feet,  the  plateau  is  for  the  most  part 
open  grassland,  more  favorable  to  pastoral  than  to  agricultural 
life,  and  forests  are  found  in  general  only  along  the  borders. 
The  climate,  except  along  the  western  and  southern  coasts,  is 
temperate  or  even  rigorous. 

The  racial  history  of  this  great  Asiatic  finger,  outstretched  to 
and  touching  the  European  continent  at  the  Bosphorus  and  the 
Hellespont,  and  associated  from  the  earliest  times  with  the  older 
centres  of  European  civilization,  has  a rather  special  interest, 
yet  to  this  day  we  know  surprisingly  little  of  the  physical  char- 
acteristics of  either  its  ancient  or  modern  inhabitants.  For  the 
prehistoric  and  proto-historic  period  practically  the  only  data  are 
derived  from  the  few  crania  found  in  one  of  the  oldest  cities  on 
the  site  of  Troy,  together  with  a few  others  of  the  Hellenic 
period  from  the  same  vicinity  and  a single  cranium  from  an 
ancient  tomb  in  Lycia.  The  Trojan  crania1  come  from  the  sec- 
ond or  Burned  City.  The  oldest  settlement  on  the  site  was  a 
small  Neolithic  village  of  whose  inhabitants  no  remains  have 
been  found.  The  second  stratum  represents  a much  higher  cul- 
ture and  belonged  to  a people  familiar  with  the  use  of  bronze, 
who  erected  solidly  built  dwellings  and  defended  their  city  by  a 
well-constructed  wall.  This  city,  after  an  existence  of  unknown 
duration,  was  sacked  and  burned  by  an  invading  people,  probably 
about  the  end  of  the  third  millennium  B.  C.  The  skeletons  of 


1 Virchow,  1882  a. 


314 


ASIA 


two  warriors,  and  a woman  somewhat  doubtfully  attributed  by 
Peake1  to  these  invaders,  were  found  in  this  stratum,  and  two 
female  crania,  one  of  which  is  perhaps  of  slightly  earlier  date. 
These  latter,  held  to  represent  the  resident  population,  indicate 
a blend  of  the  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  types,  whereas  those  re- 
garded as  belonging  to  the  invaders  are  all  three  dolichocephalic. 
They  are,  however,  badly  damaged,  so  that  their  type  cannot  be 
determined  with  certainty,  but  probably  represent  a mixture  of 
Mediterranean  and  Proto-Australoid  types.  In  any  case  they 
are  of  a radically  different  character  from  that  of  the  assumed 
resident  population.  The  belief  that  the  people  of  the  Asia 
Minor  region  were  at  the  earliest  period  of  which  we  know  brachy- 
cephalic,  is  apparently  corroborated  by  the  single  skull  from 
Lycia,2  which  is  clearly  Alpine.  Indirect  evidence  is  also  per- 
haps afforded  by  the  Bronze  Age  crania  from  Cyprus,3  which 
indicate  the  Alpine  type  as  predominant  there.  Upon  such 
slight  actual  evidence  and  the  apparently  brachycephalic  form 
of  the  heads  shown  on  the  Hittite  sculptures  from  Cappadocia 
in  the  heart  of  the  plateau,  must  be  based  the  conclusion  that 
the  oldest  traceable  population  of  this  whole  region  was  brachy- 
cephalic and  a mixture  of  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  types.  As 
will  be  seen  presently,  there  is  much  in  the  way  of  indirect  evi- 
dence derived  from  the  modern  population,  which  corroborates 
this  view. 

For  the  whole  period  of  some  4,000  years  between  the  Bronze 
Age  crania  from  Troy  and  the  present  day  almost  the  only  light 
thrown  on  the  racial  character  of  the  people  of  Asia  Minor  comes 
from  this  same  region  of  the  Troad,4  and  dates  from  the  period 
between  the  sixth  and  second  centuries  B.  C.  At  Ophrynum  a 
small  series  of  crania  would  indicate  that  the  population  at  that 
time  was  overwhelmingly  brachycephalic,  and  a mixture  of  Alpine 
and  Palae-Alpine  types,  the  only  dolichocephalic  factor  present 
being  the  Proto- Australoid.  At  Hanai  Tepe,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  conditions  are  exactly  reversed,  in  that  the  dolichocephalic 


1 Peake,  1916. 

3 See  ante,  p.  256. 


a von  Luschan,  1890. 
4 Virchow,  1882  a. 


THE  WESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  THE  CAUCASUS  315 


forms,  which  are  mainly  Caspian  and  Proto-Australoid,  are  in 
the  majority  in  both  male  and  female  series.  Farther  south  near 
Smyrna,  a series  of  crania1  supposed,  however,  to  be  Greek  and 
dating  to  the  third  century  B.  C.,  also  shows  the  dominance  of 
dolichocephalic  forms,  here  Caspian  and  Mediterranean.  All 
that  this  conflicting  evidence  will  enable  us  to  say  seems  to  be 
that  the  probably  older  brachycephalic  peoples  had  been  able  to 
hold  their  own  over  a period  of  some  1,500  years,  and  that  they 
and  the  invading  dolichocephalic  peoples  still  kept  more  or  less 
to  themselves,  each  people  having  its  own  settlements. 

While  as  yet  unconfirmed  by  any  direct  cranial  evidence,  we 
know  from  historical  and  archaeological  sources  that  settlements 
of  people,  probably  in  the  main  of  Mediterranean  and  Caspian 
types,  had  been  formed  all  along  the  Tlgean  and  Mediterranean 
shores  of  Asia  Minor,  at  least  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  second 
millennium  B.  C.,  spreading  Minoan  and  Mycenaean  culture  and 
ultimately  Greek  speech  along  the  narrow  coastal  strip,  although 
they  penetrated  but  rarely,  it  would  seem,  into  the  upland. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  first  millennium  B.  C.  the  Phrygians, 
who  probably  like  the  Thracians  were  of  mixed  Caspian  and 
Alpine  types,  swarmed  across  the  Hellespont  and  advanced  to 
the  heart  of  Anatolia,  establishing  there  for  a time  a consider- 
able power  and  ruling  as  an  aristocracy  over  the  earlier  inhabi- 
tants. In  the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries  B.  C.  the  Kimmerians 
and  Scythians  invaded  the  plateau  from  the  opposite  or  north- 
eastern corner,  coming  from  the  region  of  the  Caspian.  Although 
doubtless  much  mixed  in  physical  characteristics,  these  nomad, 
horse-riding  warriors  almost  certainly  brought  a further  con- 
siderable Caspian  element.  Farther  eastward  toward  Armenia, 
a much  earlier  invasion,  probably  of  Indo-European-speaking 
folk  related  to  the  Kassites,  had  established  the  kingdom  of  Mi- 
tanni,  and  perhaps  contributed  further  to  the  northern  long- 
headed factors  which  were  penetrating  the  upland.  No  further 
invasions  of  anthropological  significance  seem  to  have  occurred 
after  that  of  the  Scythians,  until  in  the  third  century  A.  D.  some 

1 Zaborowsky,  1881. 


316 


ASIA 


Gallic  tribes  crossed  the  Hellespont,  as  the  Phrygians  had  done 
long  before,  and  established  themselves  on  the  plateau.  Of  far 
greater  importance,  however,  were  the  invasions  of  the  Turks  in 
the  eleventh  and  the  Mongols  in  the  thirteenth  centuries.  Of 
the  two,  the  Turkish  invasion  was  probably  of  greater  signifi- 
cance, although  the  numbers  of  the  Turks  were  small  relative 
to  the  older  occupants;  and,  although  they  imposed  their  lan- 
guage on  most  of  the  population,  their  actual  influence  on  the 
racial  character  of  the  people  was  much  smaller  than  is  gen- 
erally supposed.  Unlike  the  earlier  invaders,  both  Turk  and 
Mongol  were  primarily  brachycephalic,  the  former  of  Alpine  and 
Palae-Alpine  type,  the  latter  with  a strong  element  of  the  Mon- 
goloid. In  brief,  to  sum  up  the  known  movements  of  peoples 
during  a period  of  some  3,000  years,  we  find  that  the  earlier  immi- 
grants brought  into  the  Anatolian  plateau  in  the  main  dolicho- 
cephalic, Caspian  factors,  and  that  these  entered  both  at  the 
northwest  and  northeast,  whereas  the  later  immigrants  came  in 
primarily  from  the  east  and  northeast,  and  served  to  reinforce 
the  older,  brachycephalic  types. 

The  modern  population  of  the  Anatolian  Plateau  comprises 
four  main  groups:  (1)  The  Turkish-speaking,  Mohammedan,  sed- 
entary and  nomadic  peoples  who  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  in- 
habitants, and  occupy  the  larger  part  of  the  plateau;  (2)  the 
Christian  Armenians,  speaking  a language  mainly  of  Indo-Euro- 
pean origin,  and,  although  now  widely  scattered  and  nearly  ex- 
terminated, formerly  occupying  the  eastern  and  northeastern  re- 
gion of  rugged  mountain  land  which  divides  the  Anatolian  from 
the  Iranian  Plateau;  (3)  the  Kurds,  a turbulent  mountain  people, 
Mohammedan  in  religion,  speaking  a dialect  of  Persian,  and 
mainly  settled  in  the  southeast,  extending  across  the  border  into 
Persia;  and  (4)  the  Greeks,  living  for  the  most  part  along  the 
Aegean  coast  and  at  some  points  on  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Black  Sea. 

The  first  and  largest  of  these  groups,1  although  Turkish  in 

1 Chantre,  1895  a;  Eliseev,  1891;  von  Luschan,  1911;  Pittard,  1911;  Weisbach, 
1873;  Hauschild,  1921. 


THE  WESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  THE  CAUCASUS  317 


speech,  almost  certainly  includes  only  a relatively  small  factor 
directly  attributable  to  the  Turkish  immigrants  of  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries.  In  the  main  they  are  the  representatives 
to-day  of  the  ancient  population  of  the  upland.  They  are  in 
general  of  somewhat  more  than  medium  stature,  with  dark  eyes 
and  hair,  although  in  the  central  parts  of  the  plateau  the  propor- 
tion of  light  eyes  and  hair  sometimes  runs  as  high  as  40  per  cent. 
Since  this  tendency  to  blondness  seems  less  marked  in  the  mar- 
gins and  more  remote  parts  of  the  region,  among  such  groups  as 
the  Takhtadjy,  Bektash,  Aisori,1  Kizilbash,  etc.,  it  seems  not  un- 
reasonable to  ascribe  its  presence  to  the  influence  of  the  northern 
invaders  and  settlers  of  Caspian  type,  such  as  the  Phrygians, 
Kimmerians,  and  Scythians,  although  some  recent  data  suggest 
that  the  blond  element  may  have  been  brachycephalic.2  In 
head-form  this  group  shows  a strong  predominance  of  brachy- 
cephalic factors,  but  in  the  absence  of  any  individual  measure- 
ments it  is  not  possible  to  determine  the  types  present,  although 
indirect  evidence  would  suggest  that  the  Alpine  was  probably  in 
the  ascendant.  It  should  be  pointed  out  here  that  among  the 
Takhtadjy3  and  other  marginal  groups  the  height  of  the  skull  is 
unusually  great,  and  the  back  of  the  head  commonly  greatly 
flattened,  suggesting  the  practice  of  artificial  deformation.  This 
so-called  “Armenoid”  form  of  skull  will  be  discussed  more  at 
length  in  treating  of  the  next  group.  The  small  dolichocephalic 
factor  present  among  the  people  of  this  Turkish  group  is  prima- 
rily Caspian.  Eliseev4  has  presented  evidence  showing  a large  in- 
crease in  the  proportion  of  brachycephalic  elements  among  the 
urban  as  compared  with  the  peasant  population,  and  in  the  latter 
as  compared  with  the  Turkish-speaking  nomads.  This  point  is, 
I believe,  of  much  significance,  for  it  seems  justifiable  to  conclude 
that  it  is  among  these  latter  more  dolichocephalic  nomads  that  we 
must  look  for  the  descendants  of  the  dolichocephalic  immigrants, 
the  sedentary  agricultural  and  urban  people  more  truly  represent- 
ing the  older  population,  into  which  the  conquering  Turks  of  the 
eleventh  century  have  been  absorbed. 

1Arutinov,  1908.  2 Hauschild,  1921.  3 von  Luschan,  1911.  4 Eliseev,  1891. 


318 


ASIA 


Turning  next  to  the  Armenians,1  a peopie  once  widely  spread 
but  now  all  but  destroyed,  it  appears  that  they  exhibit  a very 
striking  similarity  to  the  marginal  portions  of  the  previous  group, 
which  supposedly  most  truly  represent  the  ancient,  pre-Turkish 
population.  Their  stature  averages,  according  to  different  ob- 
servers, between  166  and  168  cm.,  and  thus  accords  closely  with 
that  of  the  Turkish-speaking  group.  Prevailingly  brunet  in  eye 
and  hair  color,  they  show,  especially  toward  the  north  and  north- 
east, a small  percentage  of  blonds,  and  in  the  Trans-Caucasus  a 
rather  striking  frequency  of  reddish  hair.  In  head-form  they 
are  prevailingly  brachy cephalic,  standing  in  this  respect  between 
the  urban  and  the  peasant  sections  of  the  Turkish-speaking 
group.  The  Alpine  type  is  strongly  in  the  majority.  There  is, 
however,  a dolichocephalic  factor  of  some  strength,  nearly  evenly 
divided  between  the  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  marginal  sections  of  the  Turkish-speaking  group, 
the  Armenian  skull  is  extremely  high  and  shows  strong  occipital 
flattening.  Another  feature  characteristic  of  the  Armenians 
which  must  be  noted  is  the  prevalence  among  them  of  what  is 
commonly  spoken  of  as  the  “Jewish”  or  “Semitic”  nose.  This 
is,  as  previously  noted,  also  found  in  considerable  frequency 
among  the  marginal  sections  of  the  Turkish-speaking  group,  al- 
though not  among  the  more  purely  Turkish  population  itself;  its 
prevalence  thus  among  the  pre-Turkish  portion  of  the  inhabi- 
tants seems  clear,  and  that  it  was  strikingly  characteristic  of  the 
ancient  Hittites  is  clearly  shown  by  their  sculptures.  The  sig- 
nificance of  the  fact  that  this  type  of  nose,  remarkable  for  its 
“nostrility,”  is  apparently  in  no  way  really  “Semitic,”  and  the 
explanation  of  the  way  in  which  it  has  come  to  be  regarded  as 
characteristic  of  the  Jew  has  been  discussed  in  the  chapter  de- 
voted to  that  people.  How  far  the  dolichocephalic  factors  in 
the  Armenian  population  may  safely  be  attributed  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Scythian,  Kimmerian,  and  other  early  invaders,  is 
hard  to  say,  but  it  seems  almost  certain  that  relatively  modern 
intermixture  with  the  Kurds  is  partly  responsible.  A portrait  of 
a typical  Armenian  is  given  on  Plate  XXI,  Fig.  i. 

1 Chantre,  1892;  Erikson,  1907;  Giuffrida-Ruggeri,  1908. 


THE  WESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  THE  CAUCASUS  319 


The  Greek-speaking  population  of  the  coastal  region  presents 
an  interesting  and  partially  analogous  case.  In  the  Kerasunde 
district1  on  the  Black  Sea  shore,  on  the  basis  of  measurements 
on  the  living,  the  Greeks  appear  to  be  a strikingly  pure  example 
of  the  Alpine  type,  with  less  than  half  the  proportion  of  blonds 
found  among  the  Armenians,  and  less  than  a quarter  of  that 
reported  for  the  Turkish-speaking  groups  in  the  central  part  of 
the  plateau.  For  the  Higean  coast2  the  data  are  primarily  de- 
rived from  modern  crania,  and  indicate  the  clear  preponderance 
of  the  Alpine  type,  although  associated  with  considerable  minori- 
ties of  Palae-Alpine,  Caspian,  and  Mediterranean  types.  On  the 
southern  coast  von  Luschan’s3  material  from  Lycia  shows  that 
the  relative  importance  of  brachycephalic  and  dolichocephalic 
factors  varies  sharply  from  place  to  place;  some  towns  such  as 
Makri,  Myra,  Adalia,  and  Levissi  being  strongly  brachycephalic, 
whereas  Limyra,  Rhodos,  etc.,  are  almost  as  strongly  dolicho- 
cephalic. Here,  in  contrast  with  the  Aegean  shore,  the  latter 
element  is  apparently  more  strongly  Mediterranean.  From  all 
these  facts  we  may  draw  the  conclusion  that  the  Greek-speaking 
population  of  the  Asia  Minor  coast  is  in  the  main  of  the  same 
stratum  of  mingled  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  as  the  mass  of  the 
occupants  of  the  plateau,  and  represents  the  old  original  brachy- 
cephalic peoples,  Hellenized  in  speech  and  more  or  less  in  cul- 
ture. The  dolichocephalic  factor,  on  the  other  hand,  is  probably 
attributable  in  part  to  very  early  colonists  and  invaders,  in  the 
south  more  purely  Mediterranean,  from  the  zEgean  islands  and 
Crete,  in  the  north  more  strongly  Caspian  and  derived  from  the 
invaders  coming  across  the  Hellespont  and  the  Bosphorus;  and 
in  part  to  later  Greek  immigrants  themselves. 

The  last  important  group  of  the  modern  peoples  of  the  Ana- 
tolian Plateau  is  that  formed  by  the  Kurds.  This  group  pre- 
sents a strong  contrast  with  the  previous  ones,  and  raises  a num- 
ber of  puzzling  problems.  We  are  met  at  the  outset  by  a cer- 
tain contradiction  in  the  data.  Chantre,4  who  measured  over 


1 Neophytos,  1890. 

3 von  Luschan,  1890;  Petersen,  1889. 


2 Weisbach,  1882. 

4 Chantre,  1892,  1895  a. 


320 


ASIA 


300  from  various  parts  of  Asia  Minor  and  northern  Syria,  de- 
scribes them  as  being  prevailingly  dark  in  hair  and  eye  color, 
stating  that  there  are  practically  no  light  eyes,  and  that  only  in 
about  a third  of  the  individuals  observed  was  the  hair  even  as 
light  as  “dark  brown.”  On  the  other  hand,  von  Luschan,1  who 
studied  some  200,  describes  them  as  an  essentially  blond  people, 
with  prevailingly  fair  hair  and  blue  eyes ! These  two  observers 
(who  have  furnished  the  majority  of  the  available  data)  are  fur- 
thermore not  in  accord  in  regard  to  the  head-form,  for,  whereas 
von  Luschan  declares  that  the  western  Kurds  are  dolichocephalic, 
Chantre  finds  that  60  per  cent  of  his  subjects  had  mesocephalic 
or  brachycephalic  indices.  The  only  check  lies  in  the  small 
series  measured  by  Nasonov2  in  Erivan,  who  in  general  corrobo- 
rates the  results  obtained  by  Chantre. 

Such  striking  disagreement  between  competent  observers  can 
be  explained  only  in  one  way,  i.  e.,  that  the  name  “Kurd”  is 
applied  to  people  of  very  diverse  origin,  just  as  is  “Greek”  along 
the  coast,  and  that  the  Kurds  of  different  sections  of  the  Ana- 
tolian area  are  physically  very  different.  It  is  possible,  also, 
that  the  great  differences  noted  may  be  in  part  due,  so  far  as 
regards  head-form,  to  the  practice  of  artificial  cranial  deforma- 
tion among  some  of  the  Kurds.  Unfortunately  von  Luschan  does 
not  give  any  individual  measurements,  so  that  no  analysis  of  his 
material  is  possible.  Chantre  does,  however,  give  individual 
data  for  some  forty  Kurds  who  showed,  in  his  opinion,  no  trace 
of  any  deformation.  If  this  material  be  analyzed,  it  appears 
that  dolichocephalic  types  are  in  moderate  majority,  the  brachy- 
cephalic elements,  however,  amounting  to  nearly  40  per  cent. 
Of  the  former  types  the  leptorrhine,  probably  Caspian,  factors 
take  first  place,  while  of  the  latter  the  Alpine  is  probably  the 
most  important.  If  Chantre’s  data  be  grouped  geographically, 
rather  interesting  results  appear.  The  Kurds  of  Armenia  and 
the  Trans-Caucasus  have,  in  spite  of  some  slight  deformation,  a 
very  large  proportion  of  dolichocephalic  factors,  ranging  as  high 
as  80  per  cent  in  some  groups.  In  the  vicinity  of  Kharput  on 

1 von  Luschan,  1911.  2 Nasonov,  1890. 


THE  WESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  THE  CAUCASUS  321 


the  plateau  in  Kurdistan,  the  figure  drops  to  less  than  45  per 
cent,  while  the  Kurds  of  northern  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  are 
very  strongly  brachy cephalic,  with  a dolichocephalic  factor  of 
less  than  20  per  cent.  This  essentially  round-headed  character 
of  the  southern  Kurds  is  corroborated  by  the  few  crania  which 
we  possess  from  here. 

It  seems  that  the  most  probable  inference  to  be  drawn  from 
the  foregoing  facts  is  that  in  the  Kurds  we  have  a mixed  folk 
who,  on  the  plateau  and  in  Armenia  are  made  up  largely  of  doli- 
chocephalic, in  the  main  Caspian  factors,  whereas  those  south  of 
the  Taurus  range  are  even  more  uniformly  of  brachycephalic, 
primarily  Alpine  type.  A strong  tendency  toward  blondness  ap- 
pears to  characterize  the  Kurds  of  the  plateau  proper,  although 
traces  appear  both  in  the  north  and  south.  Since  the  dolicho- 
cephalic factors  increase  rapidly  as  we  pass  from  south  and 
southwest  toward  the  north  and  northeast,  it  would  seem  justi- 
fiable to  regard  this  as  an  immigrant  element,  coming  from  the 
northeast  into  an  area  predominantly  brachycephalic.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  from  historical  sources  we  know  of  the  invasion 
of  the  plateau  region  from  just  this  direction,  by  the  Kimmerian 
and  Scythian  nomads  in  the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries  B.  C., 
and  apparently  by  others  at  a still  earlier  date.  It  seems,  there- 
fore, not  altogether  impossible  that  we  may  regard  the  Kurds 
as  in  considerable  measure  the  descendants  of  some  of  these  wild, 
warlike  invaders  of  the  first  millennium  B.  C.,  whose  original 
characteristics  have  become  progressively  attenuated  through 
mixture  with  the  older  population,  the  farther  they  advanced 
toward  the  west  and  south.  Peake1  suggests  an  even  more  an- 
cient source  for  this  long-headed  element,  in  the  invaders  who 
toward  the  end  of  the  third  millennium  B.  C.  came  into  Asia 
Minor  across  the  Hellespont,  and  whose  traces  seem  to  be  found, 
as  already  noted,  in  the  ruins  of  the  second  or  Burnt  City  on  the 
site  of  Troy.  An  example  of  the  Kurdish  type  is  given  on  Plate 
XXI,  Fig.  2. 


1 Peake,  1915. 


322 


ASIA 


III.  The  Caucasus 

The  region  of  the  Caucasus  may  be  most  conveniently  dis- 
cussed in  connection  with  the  western  plateaus,  of  which  it 
forms,  as  it  were,  an  outlier,  and  with  whose  history  its  own  has 
been  closely  allied. 

The  boundary-line  between  the  European  continent  and  Asia 
is,  for  the  most  part,  not  marked  by  strong  physiographic  fea- 
tures, since  the  Ural  Mountains  are,  throughout  their  southern 
portion,  a rather  insignificant  range.  In  the  Caucasus,  how- 
ever, we  have  a veritable  wall,  which,  running  from  the  Caspian 
to  the  Sea  of  Azov,  marks  the  continental  limits  with  great  dis- 
tinctness. This  striking  boundary  region  presents  a number  of 
very  interesting  features  in  its  racial  history,  and  with  it  is  inti- 
mately bound  up  the  so-called  Trans-Caucasus,  the  broad  trough 
running  almost  without  interruption  from  the  Caspian  to  the 
Black  Sea,  between  the  Caucasus  and  the  northern  edge  of  the 
western  plateaus,  and  formed  by  the  valleys  of  the  Rion  and  the 
Kura.  The  Caucasus  itself  is,  as  just  stated,  a gigantic  moun- 
tain wall,  separating  this  broad  trough  from  the  steppes  of  south- 
ern Russia,  and  is  pierced  by  only  a single  pass  of  low  altitude, 
the  famous  Pass  of  Dariel.  Except  by  this  narrow  gap  and  by 
the  equally  narrow  passage  around  the  eastern  end  of  the  range 
where  it  comes  down  to  the  Caspian,  there  is  no  easily  traversa- 
ble route  between  Europe  and  Asia.  The  southern  border  of 
the  Trans-Caucasus  is  also  steep  and  rugged,  and  only  by  way 
of  the  valley  of  the  Araxes  is  there  an  easy  approach  to  the  high- 
lands of  Armenia  and  western  Persia. 

The  earliest  data  on  the  physical  types  of  the  peoples  of  the 
Caucasus  region  are  derived  from  the  Early  Iron  or  Late  Bronze 
Age  sites  in  the  valleys  of  the  Koban  and  Terek,  on  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  range.1  Owing  to  the  wide-spread  custom  of  cranial 
deformation,  practised  in  early  as  well  as  modern  times,  the 
material  is  very  difficult  to  interpret  with  any  certainty.  It 
would  seem  to  be  shown,  however,  that  on  the  whole  of  the  north- 
s Bogdanov,  1882;  Smirnov,  1877;  Virchow,  1890  b. 


Fig. 


Fig.  4.  Yakut. 


Koryak. 


PLATE  XXL 


’ / 


THE  WESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  THE  CAUCASUS  323 


ern  slope  of  the  Caucasus  there  was  at  this  period  a strong  con- 
trast between  the  male  and  female  population.  The  former  were 
predominantly  tall  and  dolichocephalic,  the  Caspian  type  being 
in  large  majority,  whereas  the  latter  were  short  and  primarily 
brachycephalic,  the  Alpine  factors  largely  outnumbering  the 
Palae- Alpine. 

We  may  probably  interpret  these  facts  as  indicating  that  the 
early  population  of  the  Caucasus  was  one  primarily  of  Alpine 
type  and  thus  allied  to  that  of  the  western  plateaus,  but  that,  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  the  use  of  iron,  northern  peoples,  pri- 
marily of  Caspian  type,  were  pressing  against  the  mountain  bar- 
rier and  already  beginning  to  pass  either  across  it,  or  around  it 
to  the  east  by  the  Iron  Gates  of  Derbend,  in  order  to  reach  (prob- 
ably by  way  of  the  valley  of  the  Araxes)  the  upland  of  western 
Persia. 

We  have  no  materials  as  yet  for  the  long  period  between  these 
early  sites  and  modern  times,  and  must  therefore  turn  to  the  liv- 
ing peoples  of  the  region.  The  modern  peoples  of  the  Caucasus 
region  present  from  the  linguistic  point  of  view  a striking  degree 
of  complexity,  for  within  the  limits  of  this  area  probably  more 
than  two  score  different  languages  and  dialects  are  spoken. 
Apart  from  this  linguistic  diversity,  the  region  is  noteworthy  be- 
cause, excluding  the  Turko-Tatar  languages  spoken  by  tribes  of 
relatively  recent  settlement,  and  that  spoken  by  the  Ossetes  in 
the  territory  adjacent  to  the  Pass  of  Dariel,  the  languages  of  this 
region  stand  isolated  and  unrelated  to  any  other  linguistic  fam- 
ily. Of  the  five  main  groups  into  which  the  population  is  divided 
on  linguistic  grounds,  three — the  Lesghian,  Chechen,  and  Circas- 
sian— are  found  mainly  on  the  northern  side  of  the  range;  one, 
the  Georgian,  is  on  the  southern  side  and  occupies  much  of  the 
Trans-Caucasian  trough,  especially  its  western  portion;  while  the 
fifth,  the  Ossetian  is  found  both  on  the  north  and  the  south  of 
the  range  at  either  end  of  the  Pass  of  Dariel.  The  Turko-Tatar 
peoples  are  mainlv  in  the  lower  Kura  valley  and  along  the 
Caspian. 

Although  linguistically  the  people  of  the  Caucasus  region  are 


324 


ASIA 


very  diverse,  in  physical  type1  they  show  considerable  uni- 
formity, but  the  custom  of  cranial  deformation  being  widely 
spread,  all  conclusions  are  more  or  less  uncertain.  The  Lesghian2 
and  Chechen  groups  on  the  north  of  the  range  are  very  similar. 
Both  are  overwhelmingly  brachycephalic,  the  Alpine  type  alone 
amounting  in  general  to  from  80  to  90  per  cent.  Among  the 
Lesghians,  for  whom  we  have  the  more  detailed  material,  some 
groups  or  tribes,  such  as  the  Rutuli,  Dido,  etc.,  reveal  a consid- 
erable Palae-Alpine  element,  the  latter  tribe,  furthermore,  show- 
ing a respectable  minority  of  the  Caspian  type.  The  Circas- 
sians3 farther  west,  are  much  less  uniform,  for,  although  still  by  a 
large  majority  brachycephalic  (Alpine),  there  is  a considerable 
Caspian  factor  present.  The  Georgians,4  also,  although  prevail- 
ingly Alpine,  show  quite  a little  variation,  the  Kachetians  and 
Georgians  of  Guria  being  very  strongly  brachycephalic,  whereas 
the  Mingrelians  along  the  Black  Sea  coast  show  as  much  as  30 
per  cent  of  the  Caspian  type.  The  Ossetes,5 6  finally,  although 
retaining  a bare  majority  of  brachycephalic  factors,  have  a Cas- 
pian element  of  over  40  per  cent. 

The  Caucasus  area  thus,  so  far  as  what  may  be  called  its 
more  aboriginal  population  is  concerned,  is  in  general  dominated 
by  the  Alpine  type.  To  this  the  Ossetes  form  the  clearest  ex- 
ception, since  in  them  the  Caspian  element  is  almost  as  strong 
as  the  Alpine.  Their  history  and  geographical  position  appear 
to  explain  this  divergence.  As  already  stated,  the  language  of 
the  Ossetes  is  not,  like  that  of  the  other  peoples  of  the  Caucasus, 
an  isolated  one,  but  is  Indo-European,  its  closest  relations  being 
thought  to  lie  with  the  old  Persian  and  thus  also  related  to  the 
speech  used  by  at  least  part  of  the  Scythians,  who  in  the  early 
part  of  the  first  millennium  swarmed  in  the  steppe  regions  of 
southern  Russia,  and  in  the  seventh  century  B.  C.  poured  across 

1 For  general  works,  see  Chantre,  1885-87;  Erckert,  1889-90;  Pantyukov,  1893. 

2 See,  in  addition  to  general  works,  Arutinov,  1905;  Kurdov,  1901. 

3 See,  in  addition  to  general  works,  Malinin,  1905;  Virubov,  1890. 

4 See,  in  addition  to  general  works,  Djavakov,  1908;  Erikson,  1905;  Veniaminov, 

1890. 

6 See,  in  addition  to  general  works,  Ivanovski,  1891  b. 


THE  WESTERN  PLATEAUS  AND  THE  CAUCASUS  325 


Armenia  and  the  Anatolian  Plateau.  It  is  probable  that  a large 
part  of  these  invaders  found  their  way  across  the  Caucasus  by 
the  Pass  of  Dariel,  and  the  significance  of  the  location  of  the 
Ossetes  thus  becomes  apparent,  since  they  are,  with  one  excep- 
tion, the  only  one  of  the  peoples  of  the  Caucasus  living  on  both 
sides  of  the  range,  where  they  are  to  be  found  at  either  end  of 
this  pass.  On  this  hypothesis  the  Ossetes  are  the  modern  and 
much-mixed  descendants  of  some  of  the  Scythian  or  other  north- 
ern hordes,  who  remained  in  the  vicinity  of  the  strategic  route 
across  the  range.  The  Caspian  element  among  the  Mingrelians 
along  the  Black  Sea  coast  is  probably  (?)  to  be  attributed  to 
early  Greek  or  other  maritime  colonies  along  this  shore. 

The  Turko-Tatar  speaking  peoples  of  the  Caucasus  and 
Trans-Caucasus  are  in  part  relatively  recent  immigrants,  dating 
to  the  fourteenth  century  only  or  even  later.  On  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  range  they  occupy  a small  area  along  the  Caspian; 
on  the  south  they  dominate  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Kura  val- 
ley, especially  the  swampy  region  of  the  lower  river  and  the 
Araxes,  and  southward  to  the  Persian  frontier.  Although  all 
speak  closely  related  languages  belonging  to  the  Turko-Tatar 
branch  of  the  Ural-Altaic  stock,  they  present  sharp  variations 
physically.  Those  on  the  north1  resemble  the  Nogai  Tatars  and 
Kirgiz  farther  north  toward  the  lower  Volga.  Somewhat  over 
the  medium  stature,  with  dark  eyes  and  dark,  straight  hair,  they 
show  a very  large  majority  of  brachycephalic  factors,  primarily 
Alpine  in  type,  with  only  a small  minority  of  the  Caspian  type. 
Those  on  the  south  of  the  Caucasus  are  much  more  variable,  but 
on  the  whole  are  quite  different.  The  Azerbaidjan  Tatars,2  as 
the  more  southerly  groups  are  called,  are  taller  and  more  purely 
brunet  than  those  on  the  north  side  of  the  range,  and  show  a 
majority  of  dolichocephalic  factors,  of  which  the  Caspian  is  the 
chief,  the  Alpine  type  occupying  second  place.  Essentially  they 
are  the  same  as  the  group  of  the  same  name  across  the  border  in 
Persia,  and  both  these  groups  of  Azerbaidjan  Tatars  may  prob- 

1 See,  in  addition  to  general  works,  Shchukin,  1913. 

2 Kurdov,  1912  b;  Chantre,  1892  a. 


326 


ASIA 


ably  be  regarded  as  remnants  of  the  ancient  Indo-European 
speaking  Iranians  (Persians  and  Medes),  who  have  been  com- 
pletely “Tatarized”  in  speech  but  only  partly  in  physical  type. 

Possibly  very  closely  related  to  these  Azerbaijan  Tatars  are 
the  Tats  or  Tadjiks,  speaking  a Persian  dialect,  who  occupy  the 
Caspian  shore  of  Daghestan  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Cauca- 
sus, as  well  as  on  the  south  side  between  the  foot-hills  and  the 
lower  Kura.1  Although  among  them  the  brachycephalic  ele- 
ments (Alpine  and  Palae- Alpine)  are  in  the  majority,  the  Caspian 
type  is  the  largest  single  factor  (45  per  cent).  Chantre  believed 
them  to  be  Persian  immigrants  who  came  to  their  present  habi- 
tat about  the  fourth  century,  but  the  parallel  which  they  pre- 
sent to  the  Ossetes  is  certainly  striking.  For,  like  them,  they 
speak  an  Indo-European  language,  and  are  found  on  both  sides 
of  the  range,  in  this  case  where  the  alternative  route  to  that  of 
Dariel  leads  from  Europe  into  Asia.  It  is  therefore  perhaps  not 
impossible  that  they  too  may  be  in  large  part  remnants  of  one 
of  the  early  migrations  of  the  northern  longheads,  who  have 
been  somewhat  “Tatarized”  in  their  physical  characteristics, 
while  preserving,  as  did  the  Ossetes,  their  Iranian  speech. 

1 See,  in  addition  to  general  works,  Kurdov,  1908,  1913. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  NORTHERN  LOWLANDS 

I.  Western  Turkestan  and  the  Siberian  Steppes 

The  lowland  which  lies  to  the  northward  of  the  great  plateau 
belt  divides  itself  naturally  into  two  sharply  contrasted  portions, 
a western,  largely  arid  and  desert  but  comprising  considerable 
areas  of  fertile  steppe,  and  a northern  and  eastern,  which  is 
forested;  the  former  has  a climate  of  great  extremes,  the  latter 
in  its  northern  and  eastern  portions  is  typically  Arctic. 

The  first  of  these  subdivisions  includes  Western  Turkestan 
and  the  steppes  of  southwestern  Siberia.  On  the  south  it  is  lim- 
ited by  the  escarpment  of  the  Iranian  Plateau  and  the  high 
ranges  of  the  Hindu-Kush;  on  the  north  by  the  border  of  the 
forest  which  lies,  roughly,  along  the  fifty-fifth  parallel;  on  the 
east  by  the  Pamirs  and  the  Tian-shan  and  Altai  ranges  along 
the  margin  of  the  eastern  plateaus.  To  the  west  its  limits  are 
vague,  for,  although  the  Caspian  forms  a clear  boundary  in  the 
south  and  the  Ural  chain  a less  well-marked  frontier  in  the  north, 
there  is  a wide  stretch  north  of  the  Caspian  where  the  steppes  of 
Asia  and  those  of  southeastern  Russia  merge  into  one  another 
without  a break.  While  the  northern  portion  of  the  area  may 
be  described  as  sub-arid,  the  larger  part  of  Western  Turkestan  is 
strongly  arid  and  desert,  and  only  along  the  courses  of  its  two 
great  rivers,  the  Amu-Daria  and  Syr-Daria  (the  classical  Oxus 
and  Jaxartes),  especially  in  their  upper  courses,  is  any  consider- 
able area  of  irrigable,  agricultural  land  found. 

Of  the  ancient  population  of  this  whole  region  we  have  as  yet 
but  little  knowledge,  but  that  little  is  significant.  The  Siberian 
steppes  and  the  bordering  valleys  of  the  Altai  contain  thousands 
of  kurgans  or  burial-mounds.  Unfortunately  the  scientific  inves- 
tigation of  these  has  suffered  from  the  fact  that  the  great  major- 

327 


328 


ASIA 


ity  have  been  rifled  in  the  search  for  treasure,  and  but  few  of  the 
crania  from  those  which  have  been  carefully  investigated  have 
been  adequately  described.  The  age  of  the  mounds  varies,  some 
being  of  the  Bronze  period,  others  (and  the  majority  apparently) 
are  of  the  Later  Iron  Age.  Only  for  a few  crania  from  mounds 
along  the  northern  border  of  our  area,  from  the  vicinity  of  To- 
bolsk1 and  Tomsk,2  have  any  individual  measurements  been  pub- 
lished. These  show  that  the  peoples  of  these  two  districts  were 
in  the  Iron  Age  quite  different,  for,  whereas  in  the  first  case  doli- 
chocephalic factors  were  in  large  majority,  the  Caspian  type 
occupying  first  place,  in  the  second  the  few  crania  indicate  an 
overwhelming  preponderance  of  brachycephalic  factors,  the  Mon- 
goloid and  Palse-Alpine  types  being  most  important.  A large 
series  of  crania  from  Late  Bronze  Age  sites  in  the  Minusinsk 
region  of  the  upper  Yenesei,  at  the  extreme  southeastern  border 
of  the  area  under  discussion,  have  been  studied  by  Goroshchenko.3 
Analysis  of  his  material  shows  that  the  male  crania  comprise 
a majority  of  dolichocephalic  factors,  in  the  main  of  Mediter- 
ranean-Caspian  types,  with  the  Alpine  and  Palos- Alpine  secon- 
dary. The  females,  although  also  primarily  of  the  same  dolicho- 
cephalic forms,  show  a much  larger  proportion  of  the  Alpine 
type.  It  seems  clear  thus  that  the  dominant  elements  in  this 
southeastern  margin  of  the  Siberian  steppes  in  the  Bronze  Age 
were  of  Caspian-Mediterranean  types,  although  the  Later  Iron 
Age  crania  are  apparently,  like  those  from  the  vicinity  of  Tomsk, 
primarily  brachycephalic. 

Until  more  data  are  available  for  the  whole  of  the  steppe 
region  only  most  tentative  conclusions  may  be  drawn  in  regard 
to  the  racial  history  of  this  northern  portion  of  the  area  under 
discussion,  but,  taking  into  consideration  such  historical  facts  as 
we  possess,  the  cultural  data  derived  from  the  investigation  of 
the  Bronze  and  Iron  Age  sites,  and  the  character  of  the  adjacent 
population,  I believe  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  population  of 
this  steppe  and  mountain  border  region  in  the  Bronze  Age  and 
earlier  was  primarily  dolichocephalic,  the  Caspian  type  being  in 

1 Bogdanov,  1878-79  a.  2 Zaborowski,  1898.  3 Goroshchenko,  1900. 


THE  NORTHERN  LOWLANDS 


329 


large  majority,  followed  by  a secondary  factor  of  the  Alpine. 
With  the  Iron  Age  the  region  was  invaded  and  gradually  over- 
run by  peoples  of  totally  different,  almost  purely  brachycephalic 
character,  the  Palas-Alpine  and  Mongoloid  types  being  in  large 
majority.  These  newcomers  were  nomad,  horse-using  folk,  in 
all  probability  Turko-Tatar  peoples,  allied  to  the  Hiungnu  of 
the  Mongolian  plateau,  and  probably  invaded  the  steppes  by 
way  of  Dzungaria,  the  first  of  a series  of  similar  invasions  by 
related  groups  in  later  times. 

For  Western  Turkestan  the  data  are  much  more  scanty. 
Ivanovski1  has  described  a few  crania  dating,  it  is  supposed,  from 
the  first  or  second  century  B.  C.,  from  the  region  near  Issik  Kul 
in  the  western  Tian-shan,  which  are  primarily  brachycephalic. 
The  only  other  material  known  to  me  is  that  obtained  in  the 
excavations  at  Anau,2  near  Merv  on  the  extreme  southwestern 
border.  This  is,  however,  so  incomplete  that  no  certain  con- 
clusions can  be  derived  from  it  except  that  it  is  probable  that 
dolichocephalic  factors,  if  not  dominant,  were  at  least  equal  in 
importance  with  brachycephalic.  The  age  of  these  fragments, 
which  come  from  the  upper  layers  of  the  older  culture,  has  been 
variously  estimated,  but  a conservative  computation  would  place 
them  in  the  second  or  perhaps  the  third  millennium  B.  C.  Here 
again,  in  the  complete  absence  of  adequate  archaeological  mate- 
rial, we  are  forced  to  utilize  indirect  evidence,  but,  taking  every- 
thing into  consideration,  I believe  the  most  probable  hypothesis 
in  regard  to  the  ancient  population  of  Turkestan  in  the  late 
Neolithic  or  Bronze  Age  is  that  it  was,  like  that  in  the  Siberian 
steppes  farther  north,  primarily  dolichocephalic,  the  Caspian 
type  being  in  the  majority,  with  a strong  element  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. This  ancient  population  was  one  practising  agriculture 
in  the  irrigated  lands  about  the  border  of  the  desert,  yet  partly 
pastoral  as  well.  At  some  time  in  the  first  millennium  B.  C. 
this  region,  as  we  know,  began  to  be  invaded  by  the  first  waves 
of  the  Turkish-speaking  brachycephalic  and  primarily  Palae- 
Alpine  peoples  from  the  eastern  plateaus,  who  from  then  on  in 

1 Ivanovski,  1890.  2 Pumpelly,  1905;  Sergi,  1907  c. 


330 


ASIA 


ever-increasing  multitudes  poured  through  Dzungaria  and  over- 
whelmed the  older  population,  of  which  but  scant  remnants  sur- 
vive to-day.  From  this  region  at  an  earlier  period  the  Kassites, 
Medes,  and  Persians  had  gone  forth  southwestward  into  Persia 
and  Mesopotamia  and  the  ancestors  of  the  Hindus  southeast- 
ward into  India,  and  it  is  perhaps  not  impossible  that  these  great 
emigrations  of  Caspian-Mediterranean  peoples  may  even  have 
been  initiated  by  the  pressure  of  the  Turko-Tatar  hordes  long 
antedating  their  first  recorded  movements. 

The  modern  population  of  Western  Turkestan  and  the  Si- 
berian steppes  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  one  of  pastoral 
nomads,  the  other  of  sedentary  agricultural  folk.  Except  along 
the  extreme  southeastern  border  where  Indo-European  speech 
prevails,  all  the  peoples  of  this  region  speak  languages  belonging 
to  the  Turko-Tatar  group.  To  the  nomad  section  belong  the 
Kirgiz1  or  Kirgiz  Kazak  of  the  Siberian  steppes,  the  Kara  Kirgiz 
of  the  Tian-shan,  and  most  of  the  various  “Tatar”  fragments  of 
the  Altai  borderland;  the  sedentary  group  includes  the  Dungans2 
of  the  vicinity  of  Kuldja,  the  Uzbegs  and  Sarts  of  Samarcand, 
Bokhara,  Khiva,  Ferghana,  Tashkent,  and  other  irrigated  areas 
of  the  lowlands,3  and  the  peoples  of  the  upper  Oxus  region,  which 
includes  the  Galchas4  and  other  Indo-European-speaking  frag- 
ments on  the  Pamirs.  The  Turkoman5  of  the  southwestern  bor- 
der fall  rather  between  the  two  groups,  being  semi-nomadic. 

Except  for  some  of  the  Kirgiz,  whose  average  stature  ranges 
between  163  and  165  cm.,  all  the  people  of  the  region  are  some- 
what above  medium  height,  the  two  tallest  groups  being  the 
Sarts  (average  169  cm.)  and  the  Tekke  Turkomans  (average  170 
cm.).  In  skin  color  they  are  somewhat  variable,  ranging  from  a 
yellowish  or  light-brown  tint  to  a white-rosy  complexion,  hardly 
distinguishable  from  that  of  a European.  The  straight  or  wavy 
hair  is  usually  dark,  as  are  the  eyes,  although  blondish  hair  and 

1 Ivanovski,  1903;  Kharuzin,  1889;  Mochi,  1905  b;  Topinard,  1887. 

2 Gorbachev,  1886-87;  Ujfalvy,  1879. 

8 Blagovieschenski,  1912;  Bogdanov,  1886-87  c,  1888. 

4 Bogdanov,  1886-87  d;  Ujfalvy,  1896. 

6 Ivanovski,  1891  a;  Yavorski,  1897. 


THE  NORTHERN  LOWLANDS 


331 


blue-gray  eyes  are  quite  abundant  among  the  Galchas.  In  head- 
form  all,  with  the  exception  of  the  Turkomans,  show  a strong 
majority  of  brachycephalic  factors,  although  since  cranial  def- 
ormation is  in  use  to  a considerable  extent,  this  statement  must 
be  made  with  reserve.  The  analysis  of  the  available  data  seems 
to  show  significant  differences  between  the  different  sections  of 
the  population.  Thus,  in  the  Galcha  and  the  peoples  of  Badak- 
shan,1  on  the  upper  Oxus,  the  Alpine  type  is  in  overwhelming 
majority,  and  there  is  but  little  trace  of  any  dolichocephalic  fac- 
tors; among  the  Uzbeg,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Palas- Alpine  is 
dominant,  although  there  is  a strong  secondary  factor  of  the 
Alpine,  and  a not  insignificant  minority  of  dolichocephalic,  prob- 
ably Caspian  elements,  which  increase  notably  in  importance 
among  the  Tadjik  and  the  Dungan.  The  Kirgiz  again  are  in 
very  large  majority  brachycephalic,  with  the  Alpine  apparently 
dominant,  but  comprising,  in  addition  to  the  Palae-Alpine,  a con- 
siderable factor  of  the  Ural  type,  which  seems  to  be  totally 
absent  in  the  south.  It  may  further  be  noted  that  the  Uzbeg 
have  a small  proportion  of  the  Mongoloid  type,  absent  among 
the  upper  Oxus  peoples,  which  points,  as  we  might  expect  from 
what  is  known  of  their  historical  origin,  to  the  absorption  of  a 
small  number  of  Mongols. 

To  all  these  groups  the  Turkomans  stand  opposed,  in  that 
among  them  dolichocephalic  factors  are  in  the  majority,  the  Cas- 
pian-Mediterranean  types  forming  nearly  75  per  cent  of  the 
total.  Geographically  the  position  of  this  dolichocephalic  group 
on  the  plains  at  the  base  of  the  northern  edge  of  the  Iranian 
plateau  is  significant,  as  the  Turkomans  thus  duplicate  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Caspian  Sea  the  dolichocephalic  Azerbaidjan 
Tatars  on  the  west.  Like  the  latter,  the  Turkomans  have  a some- 
what obscure  history,  and  have  always  kept  more  or  less  apart 
from  their  neighbors.  They  share,  moreover,  as  has  been  stated, 
in  the  type  of  life  of  both  the  sedentary  and  nomadic  peoples. 
There  are  thus  grounds  for  believing  that  in  the  Turkomans  we 
have  (as  in  the  Azerbaidjan  Tatars)  a partly  “Turko-Tatarized” 

1 Stein,  1921. 


332 


ASIA 


remnant  of  the  ancient  Indo-European-speaking  people  of  Cas- 
pian-Mediterranean  type,  who  in  very  early  times  occupied  the 
whole  of  Western  Turkestan,  and  who  here  have  preserved  their 
physical  characteristics  in  large  measure  intact,  but  have  lost 
their  original  language.  Much  fainter  traces  of  this  ancient  doli- 
chocephalic stratum  survive  among  the  Tadjik  and  the  Dungan. 

The  Galcha  and  other  strongly  Alpine  peoples  of  the  moun- 
tain border  in  the  southeast  present,  I believe,  a case  which  is 
exactly  the  reverse,  for  they  are  to  be  regarded  as  remnants  of 
the  ancient  Alpine  type  of  people  who  in  Neolithic  and  early 
Bronze  times  occupied  the  western  plateaus,  and  who  at  a very 
early  period  were  “Aryanized”  in  speech  through  their  close 
contact  with  the  population  of  the  adjacent  lowland,  but  have 
preserved  their  original  physical  type  with  but  little  change.  It 
seems  to  me  also  probable  that  in  the  Chitrali1  and  Mastuji,1  on 
the  southern  side  of  the  Hindu-Kush,  and  in  the  Indo-European- 
speaking peoples  of  the  Pamir1  that  we  have  still  other  remnants 
of  this  ancient  Alpine  folk. 

II.  The  Siberian  Forest  Land 

The  immense  forested  area  of  northern  Asia  comprises  two 
very  different  types  of  country.  That  portion  lying  west  of  the 
Yenesei  River  toward  the  Urals,  and  north  of  the  fifty-fifth  par- 
allel to  the  Arctic  coast,  is  a vast,  featureless,  swampy  plain, 
where  the  forest  dwindles  northward  into  the  Arctic  tundra. 
East  of  the  Yenesei,  on  the  other  hand,  we  have  a series  of  low, 
much-dissected  plateaus,  rising  in  elevation  eastward  until  they 
merge  into  the  confused,  deeply  eroded,  and  higher  uplands  which 
form  the  northeastern  termination  of  the  great  plateau  belt 
which  stretches  across  the  whole  continent.  In  their  climatic 
features  both  these  areas  are  much  alike,  for  in  both  conditions 
are  severe,  and  throughout  the  whole  northern  portion  typically 
Arctic.  Nowhere  within  this  whole  region  are  the  conditions 
favorable  for  agriculture  or  for  horse-using,  pastoral  nomads, 

1 Stein,  1921. 


THE  NORTHERN  LOWLANDS 


333 


and,  like  the  northwestern  portions  of  the  American  continent,  it 
is  primarily  adapted  for  a hunting  and  fishing  population. 

Of  the  ancient  population  of  this  whole  area  we  know  noth- 
ing except  along  its  extreme  southern  border,  where  the  Bronze 
Age  crania  of  the  upper  Yenesei  in  the  vicinity  of  Minusinsk 
(already  discussed  in  the  previous  section1)  give  evidence  that 
at  that  period  the  border  country  at  least  was  occupied  by  a 
predominantly  dolichocephalic  population,  who  in  this  favored 
location  were  agricultural  and  skilled  workers  in  copper  and 
bronze.  We  must,  therefore,  for  the  entire  area  depend  upon 
indirect  evidence  in  attempting  to  reconstruct  the  early  racial 
history.  Before  suggesting  an  outline  of  this,  however,  we  may 
first  discuss  the  modern  population. 

This  may  conveniently  be  divided,  primarily  on  a linguistic 
basis,  into  two  groups,  which  have  been  called  the  Palaeo-Siberian 
and  Neo-Siberian.  The  first  occupies,  or  in  recent  historical 
times  did  occupy,  the  northeast  corner  of  the  continent,  from 
about  the  Lena  River  north  of  the  sixtieth  parallel  east  to  Bering 
Strait,  and  from  the  northern  shores  of  the  Okhotsk  Sea  to  the 
Arctic,  including  the  peninsula  of  Kamchatka.  In  it  are  in- 
cluded the  various  peoples,  living  or  recently  extinct,  known  as 
the  Chuckchi,  Koryak,  Kamchadal,  Yukaghir,  Chuvantzy,  etc. 
The  Neo-Siberian  group  comprises  all  the  rest,  and  is  divisible 
on  linguistic  grounds  again  into  four  sections,  (i)  the  Tunguses, 
whose  habitat  lies  mainly  in  the  east  and  southeast,  as  far  as  the 
Amur  (and  beyond  among  the  Manchus,  etc.),  but  who  have  ex- 
tended westward  to  the  Yenesei  within  traditional  times;  (2)  the 
Turko-Tatar  tribes,  of  whom  the  most  numerous  and  important 
is  the  Yakut,  who  in  relatively  recent  times  have  spread  from 
the  southern  borders  northward  and  northeastward  throughout 
most  of  the  basin  of  the  Lena  and  the  eastern  tributaries  of  the 
middle  and  lower  Yenesei;  (3)  the  Finno-Ugrian  Ostiaks  and 
Voguls,  in  the  swampy  forest  region  between  the  lower  Obi  and 
Yenesei;  and  (4)  the  Samoyedes,  who  stretch  along  the  Arctic 
coast  from  far  to  the  west  in  northern  Russia,  eastward  to  the 

1 See  ante,  p.  328. 


334 


ASIA 


Taimyr  Peninsula,  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  Yenesei.  In  addi- 
tion there  are  several  small  fragments,  now  nearly  or  quite  ex- 
tinct, in  the  northern  Altai  region;  the  so-called  Ostiaks  of  the 
Yenesei,  in  regard  to  whose  affiliations  there  is  much  uncertainty; 
and  on  the  Bering  Strait  coast  at  East  Cape  a small  group  of 
Eskimo. 

The  Palaeo-Siberian  tribes  are,  as  the  name  given  to  them  im- 
plies, generally  regarded  as  the  survival  of  an  older  fundamental 
stratum  of  population  once  occupying  much  larger  territories, 
repressed  into  the  northeast  corner  of  the  continent  by  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  Neo-Siberian  peoples  farther  south  and  west. 
From  the  linguistic  point  of  view,  these  tribes  are  sharply  differ- 
entiated from  all  the  others.  Not  only  do  their  languages  have 
no  relation  with  any  others  in  the  Asiatic  continent,  but  they 
show,  not  in  vocabulary  but  in  grammatical  structure,  many 
striking  similarities  to  languages  in  the  northwestern  portion  of 
America.  This  relationship  in  language  is  further  paralleled  by 
obvious  similarities  in  culture,  similarities  so  striking  that  the 
conclusion  cannot  be  escaped  that  a relationship  of  some  sort 
exists  between  these  Palaeo-Siberian  peoples  of  Asia  and  the 
Indian  tribes  of  the  northwest  coast  of  America.1  To  the  sig- 
nificance of  this  we  shall  revert  in  the  final  chapter.  In  view  of 
the  great  importance  of  this  group  in  the  racial  history  not  only 
of  this  area  but  of  that  of  the  whole  continent  and  of  America 
as  well,  it  is  extremely  unfortunate  that  we  as  yet  have  little  or 
no  cranial  material  for  any  of  these  people,  and  that  no  individual 
measurements  and,  indeed,  very  little  in  the  way  of  any  measure- 
ments have  yet  been  published.  The  summary  of  data  col- 
lected by  Jochelson-Brodsky 2 gives  us  practically  all  that  is 
known.  From  this  it  appears  that  thfe  Chuckchi  and  Asiatic 
Eskimo  are  slightly  taller  (average  162  cm.)  than  the  Koryak, 
Kamchadal  (average  below  160  cm.),  and  Yukaghir,  although  all 
are  below  medium  stature.  The  latter  thus  are  comparable  with 
the  Tunguse,  farther  south,  and  also  with  the  Ostiak.  In  head- 
form  the  Chuckchi,  northern  Koryak,  and  Yukaghir  all  show  a 

1 Boas,  1905.  2 Jochelson-Brodsky,  1906. 


THE  NORTHERN  LOWLANDS 


335 


predominance  of  brachycephalic  factors,  these  being  stronger 
among  the  Chuckchi  than  among  the  others.  The  Kamchadal 
and  southern  Koryak,  on  the  other  hand,  appear  (?)  to  have  a 
predominance  of  dolichocephalic  elements,  and  in  this  respect 
are  affiliated  with  the  Tunguse.  No  nasal  measurements  being 
given,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  anything  in  regard  to  the 
types  present.  The  crania  collected  by  Gondatti,  and  published1 
as  Chuckchi,  unfortunately  give  little  help  in  the  matter,  since 
the  majority  are  probably  Eskimo.  The  smaller  series,  how- 
ever, are  probably  Chuckchi,  but  unfortunately  are  all  of  such 
equivocal  forms  (see  p.  18)  that  identification  of  types  is  almost 
wholly  a matter  of  personal  judgment.  All  that  it  is  safe  to  say, 
I believe,  is  that  the  brachycephalic  factors,  which  are  in  large 
majority,  are  probably  in  the  main  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine, 
while  the  dolichocephalic  minority  is  probably  of  the  Caspian 
type.  Further  light  is  thrown  on  this  problem  by  the  measure- 
ments of  the  living,  taken  by  Kroeber.2  The  males  show  a strong 
majority  of  leptorrhine,  brachycephalic  forms,  with  the  platyr- 
rhine,  dolichocephalic  factors  secondary;  the  females,  on  the 
other  hand,  have  the  platyrrhine,  brachycephalic  forms  in  the 
large  majority,  the  platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic  factors  again 
being  secondary.  All  of  which  suggests  that  we  seem  to  have  in 
this  northeastern  corner  of  the  continent  a population  which  is 
more  purely  brachycephalic  than  that  found  in  the  isolation  of 
the  Kamchatkan  peninsula,  as  if  in  the  latter  had  been  caught 
the  last  remnants  of  an  earlier,  more  dolichocephalic  population, 
primarily  of  the  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types,  of 
which  considerable  traces  still  exist  among  the  Chuckchi.  A 
portrait  showing  a Koryak  type  is  given  on  Plate  XXI,  Fig.  3. 

The  Tunguse  tribes  proper,  on  the  basis  of  very  meagre  data,3 
seem  to  be  very  variable  in  their  physical  characteristics.  In 
the  north,  in  the  Gizhiga,  Kolyma,  and  Anadyrsk  districts,  they 
are  short  (average  154-158  cm.),  whereas  in  the  plateau  region 
east  of  Lake  Baikal  they  are  considerably  taller,  although  still 

1Fridolin,  1904  b.  2 Kroeber,  1909. 

8 Bogdanov,  1878-79  h;  Mainov,  I.  I.,  1901;  Talko-Hryncewicz,  1905. 


336 


ASIA 


below  medium  stature.  In  head-form  a comparable  difference 
exists,  the  northern  Tunguse,  although  with  a predominance  of 
brachycephalic  factors,  nevertheless  have  a dolichocephalic  ele- 
ment almost  as  great  as  that  found  among  the  Kamchadal.  In 
the  south  this  almost  disappears,  and  the  Alpine  type  is  strongly 
dominant.  The  hair  and  eyes  are  with  few  exceptions  dark,  the 
hair  being  straight  and  the  eyes  often  showing  no  trace  of  the 
Mongoloid  fold.  Of  the  other  tribes  belonging  to  the  Tunguse 
group,  such  as  the  Goldi,  Lamut,  Orok,  Orokon,  etc.,  of  the 
Amur  River  and  Primorsk  province,  we  know  little  or  nothing. 
The  handful  of  crania  show  that  brachycephalic  factors,  pri- 
marily of  Alpine  type,  are  in  the  majority,  and  there  seems  to 
be  a strong  similarity  with  the  Manchus,  who  are  the  more  south- 
ern representatives  of  the  stock.  The  whole  Tunguse  group, 
therefore,  appears  to  fall  into  two  parts,  a southern,  which  is 
below  medium  stature  and  prevailingly  Alpine,  and  a northern, 
which  is  still  shorter,  has  a rather  strong  dolichocephalic,  Cas- 
pian (?)  factor  in  addition  to  the  prevailing  Alpine  type,  and  is 
thus  allied  apparently  to  the  southern  Koryak  and  Kamchadal. 

Of  the  Turko-Tatar  tribes,  the  Yakut1  is  the  chief,  and  to- 
day occupies  an  immense  area  in  the  Lena  basin  and  eastward. 
This  wide  extension,  however,  seems  to  be  an  affair  of  recent 
date,  and  may  have  been  accomplished  mainly  during  the  last 
three  or  four  centuries.  Their  earlier  habitat  lay  to  the  west  of 
Lake  Baikal.  As  a horse-using  people  they  are  to-day  quite  out 
of  their  proper  environment,  over  a large  part  of  their  range.  In 
stature  the  Yakut  are  below  the  medium,  although  the  local  and 
individual  variation  is  great.  Of  swarthy  skin,  they  have  almost 
exclusively  dark  hair  and  eyes,  the  hair  straight,  the  eyes  com- 
monly Mongoloid.  In  head-form  they  are  predominantly  brachy- 
cephalic, but  have  a small  dolichocephalic  minority,  said  to  be 
recognizably  of  taller  stature.  In  the  absence  of  any  sufficient 
cranial  material,  the  types  present  cannot  be  determined,  but 
from  their  original  propinquity  to  the  Buriat,  we  may  expect 
that  in  addition  to  a prevailing  Alpine  element  there  is  also  some- 
1 Bogdanov,  1878-790;  Mainov,  I.  I.,  1903. 


THE  NORTHERN  LOWLANDS 


S37 


thing  of  a Mongoloid  factor.  These  resemblances  are  brought 
out  in  the  portrait  given  on  Plate  XXI,  Fig.  4. 

The  Ugrian-speaking  Ostiaks  and  Voguls  of  the  swampy  forest 
region  of  northwestern  Siberia,  and  the  Samoyedes  of  the  Arctic 
coast  raise  a number  of  interesting  and  also  puzzling  questions. 
The  Ostiaks  of  the  Obi  (to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
small  group  of  the  same  name  on  the  Yenesei)  appear  to  be  a 
very  mixed  people.  The  male  crania  collected  by  Sommier1 
show  a striking  dominance  of  dolichocephalic  factors,  in  which 
the  Proto- Australoid  is  in  large  majority,  with  the  Mediterra- 
nean as  the  element  of  secondary  importance.  The  small  brachy- 
cephalic  minority  is  in  the  main  of  the  Ural  type.  In  the  female 
series,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Mongoloid  type  is  secondary.  The 
crania  studied  by  Ivanovski,2  however,  show  a smaller  propor- 
tion of  dolichocephalic  types  and  a considerable  Alpine  factor. 
The  data  on  the  living  collected  by  the  same  two  observers  carry 
this  indication  still  further,  in  that  brachycephalic  factors  are 
predominant,  except  in  one  or  two  districts.  In  stature  the 
Ostiaks  are  short  (average  156  cm.),  and,  although  prevailingly 
with  dark  hair  and  eyes,  yet  have  a surprisingly  large  percentage 
(15  per  cent)  of  blond  types. 

The  Voguls3  are  closely  allied  to  the  Ostiaks  in  speech,  but, 
although  at  present  living  on  the  Asiatic  slope  of  the  Urals,  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  government  of  Perm,  they  are  relatively 
recent  immigrants,  since  they  are  known  to  have  been  living 
west  of  the  mountains  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  and 
only  crossed  to  the  eastern  side  some  three  hundred  years  ago. 
They  have  a majority  of  dolichocephalic  factors,  although  not  as 
large  as  in  the  case  of  the  Ostiaks.  No  individual  measurements 
are  available,  but  from  the  fact  that  the  crania  are  predomi- 
nantly low,  and  give  evidence  of  a considerable  platyrrhine  ele- 
ment, it  seems  probable  that  in  the  types  represented  they  are 
essentially  comparable  with  the  Ostiaks.  The  Ostiaks  and  Voguls 
thus  both  seem  to  have  a large  dolichocephalic  element,  primarily 


1 Sommier,  1887.  See  also  Bogdanov,  1878-79  e;  Tarenetsky,  1898. 
s Ivanovski,  1905.  3 Maliev,  1901;  Silinich,  1904. 


S38 


ASIA 


of  the  Proto-Australoid  type.  With  other  living  peoples  of  the 
north  of  Asia  they  show  little  affiliation;  with  the  Neolithic  popu- 
lation of  northern  and  central  Russia,  however,  rather  close 
analogies  exist  (see  p.  114).  I believe,  therefore,  that  we  may 
regard  these  peoples  as  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  popula- 
tion of  northeastern  Europe,  who  were  gradually  forced  west 
across  the  Urals  by  the  expansion  of  the  Slavs,  the  Ostiaks  hav- 
ing come  into  Asia  much  earlier  than  the  Voguls,  who,  as  already 
stated,  were  still  on  the  European  side  of  the  Urals  in  the  tenth 
century. 

The  Samoyedes,1  who  live  along  the  Arctic  coast  from  the 
White  Sea  to  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  Yenesei  River,  offer  a 
sharp  contrast  in  most  respects  to  the  last  group.  Shorter  even 
than  the  Ostiaks  (average  154  cm.),  they  are  considerably  darker- 
skinned,  have  hardly  any  trace  of  light  eyes  or  hair,  and  show  the 
Mongoloid  fold  in  their  eyes  much  more  frequently  than  the 
Ostiaks.  In  head-form  they  are  overwhelmingly  brachycephalic, 
the  Palae-Alpine  being  the  type  which  is  most  numerous,  al- 
though the  Ural  is  only  little  less  important.  The  relation 
of  the  Samoyedes  to  the  other  peoples  of  Europe  and  Asia  is 
not  as  yet  clear.  Linguistically  they  stand  rather  isolated  in 
the  Ural-Altaic  family,  but  are  supposed  to  have  some  relation- 
ship with  the  almost  extinct  remnants  of  the  non-Turkish,  non- 
Mongol  peoples  who  formerly  occupied  the  northern  slopes  of 
the  Altai  in  the  vicinity  of  the  upper  Yenesei,  through  the  Yene- 
sei Ostiaks,  who  now  live  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river  in  its 
middle  course.  Of  the  physical  characteristics  of  these,  however, 
little  or  nothing  is  known.  Rudenko2  believes  that  the  Samo- 
yedes are  practically  identical  with  the  Soyots  (see  p.  295)  and 
states  that  the  Yenesei  Ostiaks  are  also  of  the  same  type.  In 
the  absence  of  any  individual  measurements  for  these  two  groups, 
the  question  must  remain  undecided.  The  large  factor  of  the 
Ural  type,  together  with  a small  Mongoloid  element  in  the  Samo- 
yedes, seems  to  favor  some  connection  with  this  Altai  region. 

‘Bogdanov,  1878-79  b;  Sommier,  op.  cit.;  Zograf,  1878. 

2 Rudenko,  1914. 


THE  NORTHERN  LOWLANDS 


339 


There  is  also  some  relation,  obviously,  between  the  Samoyedes 
and  the  Lapps,  but  this,  on  the  basis  of  present  evidence,  seems 
perhaps  more  likely  to  be  a modern  association  and  slight  mix- 
ture rather  than  an  ancient  and  fundamental  one.  It  is  perhaps 
permissible,  in  view  of  all  the  data,  to  suggest  that  the  Samo- 
yedes represent  a people  once  resident  in  the  region  of  the  north- 
ern Altai,  who  were  driven  northward  down  the  Yenesei  by  the 
eastern  advance  of  the  Caspian  peoples  from  the  steppes,  and 
who,  on  reaching  the  Arctic  coast,  moved  westward  into  Europe. 


BOOK  IV 
OCEANIA 


INTRODUCTION 


Under  the  term  Oceania  we  shall  include  all  those  lands 
lying  southeast  of  the  Asiatic  continent  which  stretch  far  out 
into  the  Pacific.  These  range  from  the  huge  continental  mass  of 
Australia  through  the  great  islands  like  Borneo,  Sumatra,  New 
Guinea,  and  New  Zealand  down  to  the  tiniest  inhabited  islet  lost 
in  the  immense  spaces  of  the  South  Seas.  This  vast  insular 
world  may  be  divided  into  five  sections,  (i)  Indonesia,  extending 
from  Sumatra  in  the  west  to  the  Moluccas  and  Aru  Islands  in 
the  east,  and  from  Java  in  the  south  to  the  Philippines  and  For- 
mosa in  the  north;  (2)  Melanesia,  including  the  great  island  of 
New  Guinea,  together  with  the  Bismarck  Archipelago,  Solomons, 
Santa  Cruz,  New  Hebrides,  New  Caledonia,  and  Fiji,  to  name 
only  the  chief  groups — which  extend  eastward  as  far  as  the  180th 
meridian;  (3)  Micronesia,  stretching  from  the  Pelew  Islands  and 
the  Marianne  group  in  the  west  and  north,  through  the  Carolines 
and  Marshalls  to  the  Gilbert  group  in  the  east  and  south;  (4) 
Polynesia,  including  New  Zealand  and  all  the  islands  of  the  Pa- 
cific east  of  the  180th  meridian,  and  (5)  Australia,  with  the  neigh- 
boring island  of  Tasmania. 

A few  moments’  study  of  a map  reveals  several  points  wThich 
are  of  significance  in  the  racial  history  of  the  area.  In  the  first 
place  there  is  from  west  to  east,  from  the  Asiatic  continent  out 
into  the  Pacific,  a rough  gradation  in  the  size,  the  character, 
and  the  degree  of  remoteness  of  these  islands  from  one  another. 
Near  Asia  we  find  large  islands,  mountainous,  and  with  wide 
diversities  of  surface,  and  closely  set  or  joined  to  one  another  by 
chains  of  smaller  islands,  so  that  passage  from  one  to  the  other 
eastward  as  far  as  New  Guinea  and  Australia  and  northward  as 
far  as  Formosa  is  easy.  Beyond  New  Guinea  and  the  Philip- 
pines, to  the  east,  the  size  of  the  islands  rapidly  diminishes,  the 
number  of  low  coral  islets  and  atolls  increases  and  the  various 

343 


344 


OCEANIA 


groups  and  individual  islands  are  separated  by  wider  and  wider 
expanses  of  open  sea,  until  in  the  Hawaiian  group  and  Easter 
Island  we  have  either  a group  or  a single  island,  lying  one  or  two 
thousand  miles  from  the  nearest  inhabited  land.  From  west 
to  east,  thus,  the  difficulty  of  access  increases,  and  only  peoples 
skilled  in  navigation  and  supplied  with  seaworthy  vessels  could 
hope  to  reach  the  far-off  islands  in  the  southern  seas.  We  have 
thus  good  grounds  for  believing  that  Polynesia  could  not  have 
been  peopled  by  primitive  man,  and  was  probably  the  last  great 
portion  of  the  habitable  world  to  be  occupied. 

A second  geographical  feature  to  be  noted  is  the  location  of 
Australia  in  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  area,  and  the  peculiar 
climatic  and  environmental  conditions  which  made  it  in  most 
respects  the  least  attractive  of  all  the  lands  in  the  region.  Pen- 
dant, as  it  were,  from  New  Guinea,  the  Australian  continent  lies 
apart  from  the  main  island  chains  which  run  from  west  to  east, 
so  that,  as  we  shall  see,  although  reached  by  the  earlier  drifts  of 
peoples  and  colonized  by  them,  the  late  streams  of  migrants 
passed  it  by.  In  its  environment  Australia  presents  a sharp 
contrast  with  all  the  rest  of  the  Oceanic  area,  for  whereas  else- 
where we  find  luxuriant  tropical  conditions,  here  two-thirds  of 
the  great  continent  lies  parched  and  blistered  by  the  sun,  one  of 
the  greatest  and  most  terrible  deserts  in  the  world. 

For  this  whole  Oceanic  region  we  have  as  yet  but  very  few 
ancient  crania  and  little  direct  evidence  to  show  the  character  of 
its  earlier  population.  The  pre-human  Pithecanthropus  erectus 
from  Java,  the  Talgai  skull  from  Australia,  and  a few  crania 
of  very  doubtful  age  from  New  Britain,  are  all  we  possess  which 
have  or  may  have  a respectable  antiquity.  History  for  most  of 
the  area  reaches  no  further  back  than  the  sixteenth  century,  for 
many  sections  not  so  far,  and  for  Java,  of  which  we  know  most, 
we  have  little  definite  information  back  of  the  sixth  or  seventh 
century.  We  must,  therefore,  in  attempting  to  outline  the  racial 
history  of  this  immense  region,  rely  almost  wholly  on  the  indirect 
evidence  afforded  by  the  present  distribution  of  the  several  types. 

At  the  earliest  period  to  which  we  can  go  back  by  inference,  a 


PLATE  XXII.  OCEANIA. 

Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  Types. 


PLATE  XXIII.  OCEANIA. 


PLATE  XXIV.  OCEANIA. 


o 


PLATE  XXV.  OCEANIA. 
Percentage  distribution  of  Alpine  and  Ural  Types. 


INTRODUCTION 


345 


period  which  on  purely  hypothetical  grounds  may  be  regarded 
as  contemporaneous  with  the  later  or  even  the  middle  portion  of 
the  Palaeolithic  period  in  western  Europe,  two  types  of  people 
seem  to  have  occupied  Indonesia,  the  western  part,  at  least,  of 
Melanesia,  and  Australia.  The  mass  of  this  earliest  population 
was  of  the  Proto-Australoid  type,  of  medium  stature  with  dark- 
brown  skin  and  wavy  or  even  straight  hair.  Associated  with  it 
was  a minority  of  Negrito  Pake-Alpine  folk,  short,  dark,  and 
frizzly-haired.  Whether  these  Negrito  people  preceded  the 
Proto-Australoids  or  drifted  in  with  them  from  southeastern 
Asia  we  have  as  yet  no  means  of  knowing.  How  far  to  the 
eastward,  also,  these  early  immigrants  from  southern  Asia 
reached,  is  still  far  from  clear.  Of  primitive  culture,  they  could 
hardly  have  been  able  to  cross  very  wide  stretches  of  sea.  To 
New  Guinea  they  could  surely  win,  and  thence  to  Australia,  for 
land  connection  may  then  still  have  existed  across  what  is  now 
the  shallow  Torres  Straits.  But  beyond?  To  the  Bismarck 
Archipelago  almost  certainly,  and  perhaps  through  the  Solomons 
and  the  Santa  Cruz  group  to  the  New  Hebrides;  but  farther  than 
this  it  is  well-nigh  certain  that  they  did  not  and  could  not  go. 
Thus  all  Polynesia  and  Micronesia  lay  still  untouched  by  man 
during  this  earliest  period. 

After  a long  period  perhaps  of  quiescence,  a new  era  of  migra- 
tion set  in,  the  echo,  perchance,  of  those  great  stirrings  of  peo- 
ples in  the  Asiatic  continent  in  Neolithic  times  which  we  can  as 
yet  only  dimly  glimpse.  It  brought  or  thrust  into  Indonesia 
from  the  southeastern  funnel-like  end  of  the  Asiatic  continent 
a flood  of  peoples,  primarily  of  the  Proto-Negroid  type,  tall, 
black,  and  woolly  or  frizzly  haired.  Through  Indonesia  from 
island  to  island  they  swept,  and  on  into  New  Guinea.  The 
older  peoples  were  absorbed  or  driven  inland  from  the  coasts, 
which  by  a people  travelling  by  water  were  the  first  areas  to  be 
occupied.  Southward  the  newcomers  passed  on  into  Australia, 
following  down,  in  the  main,  the  eastern,  more-favored  parts  of 
the  continent,  and  forcing  westward  into  the  desert  the  older 
aborigines.  These  new  peoples  were  a folk  of  more  advanced 


346 


OCEANIA 


culture  and  had,  or  had  developed  in  the  course  of  their  drifting 
through  the  islands,  vessels  of  some  degree  of  seaworthiness,  and 
had  acquired  some  skill  in  navigation.  Thus  they  were  able  far 
more  easily  than  the  pioneers  to  push  their  search  for  new  lands 
to  the  eastward.  Passing  beyond  the  older  limits,  they  reached 
Fiji  and  thence  Samoa  and  Tonga,  the  Cook,  Society,  and  Pau- 
motu  groups,  reached  the  Marquesas,  and  by  some  stupendous 
piece  of  chance  won  their  way  to  far-off  Easter  Island,  most 
remote  and  lonely  of  all.  Hawaii  in  the  north  and  New  Zealand 
in  the  south  they  probably  never  reached;  whether  or  not  they 
penetrated  to  Micronesia  the  dearth  of  our  material  from  that 
area  will  not  permit  us  to  say.  Throughout  Indonesia,  however, 
they  seem  to  have  spread,  and  it  is  possible  that  a stream  of  these 
Negroid  sea-rovers  passed  northward  from  Formosa  through  the 
Riu-kiu  Islands  to  Japan. 

At  this  point  in  the  racial  history  of  the  Oceanic  area  a very 
puzzling  problem  arises,  which,  largely  because  of  the  inadequacy 
of  our  data  for  the  whole  of  southeastern  Asia  and  for  the  Philip- 
pines we  cannot  as  yet  satisfactorily  solve.  For,  beginning  per- 
haps feebly  almost  coincidently  with  the  Proto-Negroid  drift, 
but  coming  in  greater  force  some  time  after  its  close,  a stream 
of  peoples  of  very  different  character  came  into  Oceania.  Al- 
though doubtless  mixed  with  other  elements,  they  had  a core  of 
tall,  fair-skinned,  straight  or  wavy-haired  folk,  in  majority  of 
Caspian  type,  with  which  a strain  of  shorter,  darker  Mediterra- 
neans was  somehow  blended.  We  can  trace  them  to-day  more 
or  less  clearly  in  southwestern  Sumatra,  here  and  there  in  Bor- 
neo, and  among  one,  at  least,  of  the  wilder  tribes  of  northern 
Luzon  in  the  Philippines.  Farther  east  we  find  faint  traces  of 
them  among  the  “Alfures”  of  the  Moluccas,  in  the  islands  of 
the  extreme  southeast  of  Indonesia,  and  even  along  the  south- 
western New  Guinea  coast.  Farther  into  Melanesia  or  into 
Australia  they  do  not  seem  to  have  gone,  for  it  was  by  another 
route  that  they  passed  far  into  the  heart  of  the  Pacific.  We  find 
them  clearly  represented  thus  in  the  eastern  Carolines,  and  form- 
ing the  majority  of  the  factors  in  the  population  of  the  Gilbert 


INTRODUCTION 


347 


group,  whence  they  pressed  southward  through  Samoa  and  Tonga 
to  New  Zealand,  and  eastward  throughout  the  whole  of  Central 
Polynesia.  So  much  seems  clear,  but  whence  did  they  come? 
We  have  seen  in  a previous  section  (p.  243)  how  presumably  in 
later  Neolithic  times  peoples  of  this  same  type  moved  eastward 
through  the  heart  of  Asia  from  their  ancient  homelands  in  the 
Eur-Asiatic  steppes,  and  came  into  the  eastern  borderlands  of 
Asia  to  China  and  Japan;  how,  also,  they  seem  to  have  streamed 
along  the  great  river  valleys  leading  from  the  highlands  of  Tibet 
southward  to  Indo-China.  From  which  of  these  two  branches 
did  the  stream  which  passed  into  Oceania  derive?  Did  it  come 
from  Indo-China  by  way  of  Sumatra,  Java,  and  Borneo,  or, 
crossing  from  China  to  Formosa,  did  it  make  its  way  southward 
through  the  Philippines  and  thence  southward  into  the  rest  of 
Indonesia  and  eastward  by  way  of  Micronesia  into  the  Pacific? 
For  the  solution  of  this  problem  we  have  only  indirect  evidence 
as  yet.  Our  clews  are  mainly  cultural  and  linguistic,  and  these 
point  with  considerable  certainty  toward  Indo-China  rather  than 
to  the  Asiatic  borderlands  farther  north.  Indeed,  just  as  was 
suggested  as  a possibility  in  the  case  of  the  Negroid  drift,  there 
is  much  to  suggest  that  a subsidiary  stream  of  these  Caspian 
peoples,  with  some  admixture  of  Proto-Negroid  and  other  folk, 
absorbed  in  their  passage  through  Indonesia,  passed  northward 
by  way  of  Formosa  to  the  Chinese  coast. 

Next  in  sequence  of  events  in  this  attempted  reconstruction 
of  the  racial  history  of  Oceania,  came  the  peoples  who  to-day 
form  the  mass  of  the  population  in  Indonesia.  This  folk,  pri- 
marily of  Palae-Alpine  type,  short,  with  brownish-yellowish  skin, 
straight  black  hair  and  a strong  tendency  to  have  the  Mongo- 
loid eye,  pressed  down  into  southeastern  Asia  at  an  early  date 
(see  p.  245),  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  this  pressure  was 
in  large  part  responsible  for  the  emigration  thence  of  the  Cas- 
pian peoples.  Be  this  as  it  may,  these  brachy cephalic  migrants 
swarmed  off  from  the  Indo-Chinese  shores  and  made  themselves 
masters  of  all  of  Indonesia,  in  general  pressing  back  into  the 
interior  the  older  population.  Later  they  began  to  reach  out 


348 


OCEANIA 


eastward.  Coasting  along  the  northern  shore  of  New  Guinea, 
they  formed  small  settlements  here  and  there,  in  particular  on 
the  small  islands  along  the  coast,  for  there  the  aboriginal  “Mel- 
anesian,” or  Negroid,  people  could  more  easily  be  overcome. 
It  seems  probable  that  the  largest  area  which  they  occupied  lay 
around  on  the  southeastern  coast,  in  British  New  Guinea,  but 
the  lamentable  paucity  and  incompleteness  of  our  data  for  this 
region  make  it  impossible  to  tell  whether  the  lighter-skinned 
immigrant  population  of  parts  of  this  region  are  of  Palae-Alpine 
type  and  due  to  this  migration,  or  have  a strong  Alpine  element 
and  so  are  attributable  to  the  influence  of  a later  wave.  Proba- 
bly some  influence  of  this  Pake-Alpine  drift  reached  as  far  east 
as  the  Solomons,  New  Hebrides,  and  New  Caledonia,  but  that 
it  went  beyond  to  Fiji  and  into  western  Polynesia  we  have  no 
evidence  whatever.  Yet  somehow  a group  of  Palae-Alpine  people 
must  have  reached  Hawaii  and  been  its  first  inhabitants,  al- 
though all  routes  seem  closed  by  which  it  could  have  come,  and 
the  puzzle  of  their  origin  is  still  unsolved.  The  problem  and 
the  dilemma  in  which  we  are  landed  will  be  more  fully  set  forth 
in  the  chapter  on  Polynesia. 

The  last  episode  in  the  racial  history  of  Oceania  touches  al- 
most the  edge  of  history.  At  a time  probably  not  many  cen- 
turies before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  there  came  into 
Indonesia  from  some  portion  of  southeastern  or  eastern  Asia— 
perhaps  from  Tonkin  and  Annam  or  farther  north  from  the 
southern  Chinese  coast — a people  whom  we  may  call  the  true 
Malays.  Under  medium  stature,  yellowish-brown  in  color,  with 
straight  black  hair  and  variable  development  of  the  Mongoloid 
eye,  the  true  Malay  is  primarily  of  Alpine  type,  but  with  a 
strong  secondary  factor  of  the  Palae-Alpine,  and  bears  a striking 
resemblance,  in  the  proportions  of  the  physical  types  present,  to 
the  modern  population  of  the  Chinese  coastal  provinces  of  Fukien 
and  Chekiang,  opposite  the  island  of  Formosa.  Who  and  what 
the  “Malay”  is  and  whence  he  came  is  a problem  that  has  long 
been  debated.  I believe,  however,  that  the  problem  finds  its 
solution  in  regarding  them  as  a group  of  people  derived  from  the 


INTRODUCTION 


349 


blending,  along  the  southern  and  central  Chinese  coast,  of  the 
earliest  Alpine  immigrants  (perhaps  in  the  third  or  fourth  mil- 
lennium B.  C.)  with  the  older,  primarily  Palae- Alpine  and  Cas- 
pian population  of  the  Yangtse  region.  Maritime  in  their  cul- 
ture, it  was  from  these  ancient,  non-Chinese  inhabitants  of  the 
coast  and  Yangtse  delta  that  the  Chinese  as  they  extended  their 
control  eastward  to  the  sea,  learned  the  art  of  boat-building  and 
navigation.  As  the  Chinese  expanded  southward  along  the 
shore,  they  partly  absorbed  and  partly  pressed  back  these  older 
Malay  peoples,  who  were  physically  more  or  less  akin  to  them- 
selves, and  from  time  to  time  groups  of  these  sea-roving  folk 
broke  away  from  the  mainland  and  sought  new  homes  in  the 
islands  to  the  east  and  south.  They  settled  along  the  western 
shores  of  the  Philippines,  occupied  most  of  the  smaller  islands  of 
the  central  part  of  the  group,  the  Zamboanga  peninsula  of  Min- 
danao, and  the  whole  of  the  Sulu  chain;  they  colonized  parts  of 
the  lowland  shore  of  Borneo  and  farther  westward,  coming  to 
the  low  east  coast  of  Sumatra,  ascended  the  rivers  to  the  more 
healthy  highlands  of  the  central  west  coast,  where  they  became 
the  ancestors  of  the  so-called  Menangkabau  Malays.  They 
spread  even  farther  westward  yet,  reaching  Madagascar,  where 
they  contributed  a large  factor  to  the  population.  They  spread 
also  eastward,  and  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  or 
perhaps  as  late  as  the  second  or  third  century  A.  D.,  large  groups 
who  had  possibly  been  faintly  touched  by  the  earliest  Indian  in- 
fluences which  were  beginning  to  make  themselves  felt  in  Java, 
wandered  toward  New  Guinea  and  Polynesia. 

By  what  route  they  went  is  not  as  yet  wholly  clear.  They 
may  have  coasted  along  the  northern  shores  of  New  Guinea  and 
so  through  eastern  Melanesia  to  Samoa,  although  if  they  did 
they  left  no  traces  which  our  present  physical  data  reveal.  Per- 
haps this  black-man’s  land  did  not  attract  them,  and  they  may 
have  gone  farther  north  by  way  of  Micronesia.  All  that  we  can 
be  sure  of  is  that  they  came  in  considerable  numbers  to  Samoa 
and  Tonga,  which  groups  they  came  in  time  to  dominate,  so 
that  their  earlier  mixed  population  of  Caspian  and  Proto-Negroid 


350 


OCEANIA 


elements  was  largely  absorbed.  Bold  navigators,  they  were  not 
deterred  by  great  stretches  of  open  sea,  and  so  not  only  pushed 
farther  east  (in  the  main  perhaps  by  way  of  the  Tokelau  and 
Union  groups  to  the  Marquesas,  and  in  lesser  degree  through 
the  Cook  group  to  the  Society  and  Paumotu  groups),  but  their 
earlier  Samoan  generations,  having  absorbed  much  of  the  older 
Caspian  element,  quested  south  and  reached  New  Zealand. 
Farther  north,  also,  they  went  beyond  the  bounds  which  had 
hemmed  in  the  earlier  peoples  and  came  to  Hawaii,  finding  the 
island,  however,  already  occupied  by  the  Pake- Alpine  pioneers, 
who  had  in  some  unknown  fashion  reached  the  group  some 
centuries  before.  To  Easter  Island,  at  the  extreme  eastern 
margin  of  Polynesia,  there  is  no  evidence  that  these  latest 
migrants  ever  came. 

The  racial  history  of  Oceania  is  thus  one  in  which  wave  after 
wave  of  immigrant  peoples  spread,  at  first  timidly  and  slowly, 
later  more  boldly  and  with  greater  skill;  each  drift,  as  a rule, 
amalgamating  with  or  driving  into  the  interior  or  toward  the 
margins  of  the  territory  the  older  folk  which  it  found  in  occupa- 
tion, and  all  alike  deriving  from  the  southeastern  corner  of  the 
great  continent  to  the  west.  Here  not  westward  but  eastward 
the  course  of  colonization  and  discovery  held  its  way,  until  in 
Hawaii  and  Easter  Island  it  reached  its  limit.  It  has  been  be- 
lieved by  some  that  this  was  not  the  end,  that  peoples  who  had 
dared  to  sail  thus  far  could  cross  the  still  wider  spaces  that  sep- 
arate the  Polynesian  Islands  from  the  New  World,  and  that 
America  received  thus  a part,  perhaps  the  larger  part,  of  its  pop- 
ulation from  this  source.  He  would  be  rash  who  would  deny 
that  Polynesian  navigators  might  not  once  or  twice  have  reached 
the  American  coast,  but  rasher  if  he  believed  that  this  could  have 
supplied  any  appreciable  factor  in  the  population.  For  such 
tiny  increments  would  come  too  late;  America  had  already  been 
peopled  from  the  northeast  of  Asia  while  yet  these  lovely  islands 
lay  vacant  in  their  sunny  seas.  Some  few,  perhaps,  of  the  puz- 
zling cultural  features  which  the  ethnologist  finds  the  New  World 
to  have  in  common  with  the  islands  of  the  west  may  yet  be 


INTRODUCTION 


351 


proved  to  be  the  result  of  the  chance  drifting  to  American  shores 
of  the  few  survivors  of  storm-driven  craft;  but  apart  from  this 
we  are,  I think,  right  in  believing  that  great  as  were  the  abilities 
and  the  daring  of  these  rovers  of  the  seas,  who  sought  and  from 
time  to  time  found  every  habitable  islet  within  their  range, 
Hawaii,  the  Marquesas,  and  Easter  Island  marked  the  utmost 
limit  of  their  endeavor.  The  maps  given  on  Plates  XXII  to  XXV 
indicate  the  distribution  in  the  Oceanic  area  of  the  several  types 
and  their  combinations,  and  serve  to  show  graphically  something 
of  the  bases  on  which  the  general  conclusions  just  outlined  rest. 


CHAPTER  I 


INDONESIA 

The  term  Indonesia  will  here  be  understood  to  include  the 
islands,  large  and  small,  which  are  commonly  comprised  in  the 
Malay  Archipelago,  together  with  Formosa  and  the  Aru  and 
Kei  Islands,  which  lie  south  and  west  of  the  great  island  of  New 
Guinea.  As  a group  Indonesia  forms  a rough  crescent,  which 
at  its  ends  in  Sumatra  and  Formosa  comes  almost  in  contact 
with  the  Asiatic  continent,  and  at  its  centre  approaches  closely 
to  New  Guinea.  Several  of  the  islands  are  of  large  size,  such  as 
Sumatra,  Borneo,  Java,  Celebes,  and  Mindanao  and  Luzon  in 
the  Philippines,  all  of  which,  with  their  high  mountain  chains, 
have  a varied  surface  and  environment.  The  whole  archipelago 
may  be  described  as  close  pressed,  so  that  from  island  to  island 
and  from  group  to  group  only  a short  sea  journey  is  needed,  and 
one  may  thus  easily  pass  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  Indonesia 
without  going  out  of  sight  of  land. 

From  the  linguistic  point  of  view  the  peoples  of  Indonesia 
form  a unit,  since  all  the  languages  fall  into  a single  broad  group, 
related  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  Melanesian,  Micronesian,  and 
Polynesian  languages,  and,  on  the  other,  to  the  Mon-Khmer 
stock  of  southeastern  Asia.  From  no  portion  of  Indonesia  do 
we  as  yet  possess  any  data  in  regard  to  its  ancient  inhabitants. 
The  famous  fragmentary  skull  of  the  Pithecanthropus  erectus 
from  Java  is  not  a human  but  a pre-human  type;  in  so  far,  how- 
ever, as  its  evidence  is  pertinent,  it  indicates  that  in  late  Ter- 
tiary times  this  human  precursor  possessed  a skull  which  was 
both  long  and  low,  and,  since  we  are  probably  justified  in  assum- 
ing the  nose  to  have  been  broad,  was  thus  affiliated  with  the 
Proto-Australoid  type.  The  crania  from  the  caves  in  Samar  and 
the  Visayan  Islands  in  the  Philippines  are  probably  not  of  any 
very  great  age,  and  are  so  much  deformed  that  little  evidence  of 

352 


INDONESIA 


353 


value  can  be  derived  from  them  for  our  purposes,  except  that 
apparently  platyrrhine  types  outnumber  the  leptorrhine,  whereas 
the  reverse  is  the  case  among  the  modern  inhabitants. 

We  may  best  understand  the  character  of  the  present  popu- 
lation of  Indonesia  and  the  evidence  which  it  gives  us  as  to  the 
racial  history  of  the  area  by  considering  separately  the  various 
larger  islands  and  island  groups.  Sumatra,  which  at  the  Straits 
of  Malacca  almost  joins  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  may  have 
been  actually  continuous  with  it  even  in  proto-historic  times,  is 
topographically  divisible  into  two  very  distinct  parts.  The 
northeastern  half  of  the  island  facing  the  Asiatic  coast,  is  low, 
swampy,  and  covered  with  dense  tropical  jungle,  whereas  the 
southwestern  half  is,  on  the  contrary,  a high,  rugged  plateau, 
whose  elevation  gives  to  it  a much  more  healthy  climate.  These 
differences  are  reflected  in  the  culture,  the  occupants  of  the  lower 
portion  of  the  island  being  in  general  rather  primitive,  while 
those  of  the  highlands  are  relatively  advanced.  On  physical 
grounds,  the  population  is  divisible  into  three  groups,  character- 
ized respectively  by  the  predominance  of  the  Alpine,  the  Palae- 
Alpine,  and  the  Proto-Negroid  types. 

The  first  group  comprises  the  true  or  so-called  Menangkabau 
Malays,1  whose  habitat  is  mainly  confined  to  the  central  high- 
lands of  the  southwestern  side  of  the  island,  and  who  appear  to 
be  relatively  recent  immigrants,  reaching  their  historic  homes 
probably  by  way  of  the  east-coast  rivers  from  the  north.  Some- 
what below  medium  in  stature  (average  161  cm.),  they  are  of  a 
yellowish-brown  color,  with  black,  straight  hair  and  variable 
development  of  the  Mongoloid  eye.  Predominantly  Alpine  in 
type,  they  have  a fairly  strong  secondary  element,  which  is 
Pals- Alpine,  together  with  minorities  of  Negroid  factors,  and 
in  the  Padang  Highlands  a surprisingly  large  strain  of  the  Cas- 
pian type.  In  their  general  physical  characteristics  they  resem- 
ble closely  the  Chinese  of  the  coastal  provinces  of  Fukien  and 
Chekiang.  An  example  of  the  Menangkabau  Malay  is  given  on 
Plate  XXVI,  Fig.  i. 


1 Kleiweg  de  Zwaan,  1910. 


354 


OCEANIA 


The  second  group  includes  probably  a large  part  of  the 
remainder  of  the  population  of  the  island,  who  represent  a much 
older  stratum.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Battak1  of  the 
uplands  about  Toba  Lake,  probably  also  the  Alas  and  Gajo, 
north  of  them,  together  with  the  people  of  the  Lampong  and 
Palembang2  districts  to  the  south.  The  Kubu3  and  other  primi- 
tive tribes4  of  the  eastern  lowland  seem  also  to  belong  to  this 
group.  In  stature  somewhat  shorter  than  the  Malay  (average, 
Kubu  158  cm.,  Battak  160  cm.);  in  skin  color  variable,  the  Kubu 
being  a reddish  brown,  the  Battak  often  somewhat  lighter;  with 
hair  which  is  often  wavy  or  even  curly,  they  are  quite  clearly 
differentiated  in  appearance  from  the  Malay  proper.  In  all  the 
Palae-Alpine  type  is  strongly  dominant,  and  in  all  probability  in- 
cludes some  traces  of  the  Negrito  variety.  The  Alpine  type,  so 
strong  among  the  Malay,  is  wholly  or  almost  wholly  absent,  but 
all  have  a considerable  factor  of  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- Aus- 
traloid types,  and  their  resemblance  to  the  Sakai  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula  (who  have  a large  element  of  these  types)  has  been 
often  noted,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  portrait  shown  on  Plate 
XXVI,  Fig.  2. 

The  third  group  is  found,  so  far  as  we  know  yet,  only  in  the 
Palembang  Highlands,5  at  the  extreme  southern  tip  of  the  island, 
and  is  contrasted  with  the  other  groups  in  that  it  is  almost  purely 
dolichocephalic.  Unfortunately,  the  data  are  old  and  no  nasal 
measurements  are  given,  so  that  the  determination  of  the  type 
or  types  present  is  not  possible,  but  if  these  people  of  the  ex- 
treme south  are  not  descendants  of  the  Indian  immigrants  which 
came  into  Sumatra  in  small  numbers  in  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era,  we  may  regard  them  as  probably  survivors  of  the 
oldest  or  dolichocephalic  stratum  of  the  Sumatran  population. 
Still  clearer  traces  of  this  older  stratum  are  to  be  found  in  the 
islands  which  lie  off  the  western  coast.  In  Engano6  and  the 
Mentawei  group,7  the  dominant  factor  seems  on  the  basis  of 


1 Hagen,  1890;  Volz,  1900.  2 Swaving,  1863.  3 Hagen,  1908;  Volz,  1908. 

1 Moskowski,  1908.  6 Swaving,  1870. 

® Danielli,  1893;  Modigliani,  1894.  7 Maas,  1893,  1902. 


INDONESIA 


355 


scanty  material  to  be  primarily  of  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- 
Australoid  types.  For  Nias1  the  data,  although  very  abundant, 
are  absolutely  contradictory,  since,  while  the  crania  show  a strong 
predominance  of  these  same  two  dolichocephalic  types,  with  the 
Palae-Alpine  as  next  in  importance,  the  measurements  on  the 
living  indicate  a population  essentially  brachycephalic,  and  com- 
parable to  the  Malay ! It  seems  difficult  to  account  for  this 
radical  contrast,  except  on  the  assumption  that  the  crania  repre- 
sent a relatively  old  population,  and  that  the  character  of  the 
people  has  been  wholly  changed  in  recent  times  by  an  invasion 
of  Malay  peoples.  The  survival  in  this  distinctly  marginal  area 
of  the  islands  off  the  rugged  western  coast  of  Sumatra,  of  a 
dominantly  Proto-Negroid-Proto- Australoid  population,  indicates 
that  this  is  the  oldest  stratum,  which  has,  on  Sumatra  itself,  been 
overlaid  first  by  a Palae-Alpine  and  later  by  an  Alpine  people. 

Java,  unlike  Sumatra,  has  no  extensive  lowland,  but  is 
throughout  a mountainous  and  volcanic  land.  The  population  is 
usually  divided  into  three  sections — the  Sundanese  in  the  west, 
the  Javanese  proper  in  the  centre,  and  the  Madurese  in  the  east. 
So  far,  however,  as  our  data  go,  there  is  little  difference  between 
them  physically.2  The  determination  of  physical  types  in  Java 
is  difficult,  owing  to  the  wide  prevalence  of  the  custom  of  arti- 
ficial cranial  deformation.  It  seems,  however,  that  throughout 
the  island  the  Palae-Alpine  type  is  strongly  dominant,  with  the 
Alpine  secondary,  only  small  minorities  of  Proto-Negroid  and 
Proto- Australoid  being  present.  The  people  thus  apparently  are 
comparable  to  the  second  or  main  group  in  Sumatra,  who  had 
received  a considerable  infusion  of  the  Alpine  Malay  type.  That 
the  older,  dolichocephalic  stratum  has  not  wholly  disappeared 
seems  to  be  shown  by  the  Tenggerese3  in  the  mountain  country 
at  the  eastern  end  of  the  island.  Although  no  individual  mea- 
surements have  been  published,  it  seems  clear  that  they  have  a 
considerable  dolichocephalic,  platyrrhine  element  among  them, 

1 Kleiweg  de  Zwaan,  1913-15;  Zuckerkandl,  1894. 

2 Garrett,  1912;  Hagen,  1890;  Swaving,  1861-62;  Bleeker,  1851;  Arndt,  1854. 

3 Kohlbrugge,  1898. 


356 


OCEANIA 


which  is  corroborated  by  the  wavy  or  even  curly  character  of 
their  hair.  Whether  this  represents  the  ancient,  underlying 
dolichocephalic  stratum,  or  may  be  due  to  the  influence  of  col- 
onists from  southern  India  during  the  period  of  Indian  cultural 
influence  in  the  middle  ages  and  before,  it  is  not  yet  possible  to 
say.  The  probabilities  are  in  favor,  however,  of  this  being  an 
ancient,  not  a relatively  modern  factor.  In  stature  the  popula- 
tion of  Java  is  below  the  medium,  the  Sundanese  being  the 
shortest,  with  an  average  of  159  cm.,  the  Javanese  and  Madurese 
being  very  slightly  taller.  All  have  straight  or  very  slightly  wavy 
hair,  and  a light  yellowish-brown  skin.  We  know  that  strong 
Indian  cultural  influences  and  probably  actual  colonization  on  a 
small  scale  occurred  in  central  and  eastern  Java,  beginning  some- 
where about  the  seventh  century  A.  D.  But  our  present  data 
do  not  appear  to  indicate  that  this  contact  has  affected  the  pres- 
ent population  in  any  noticeable  way. 

The  island  of  Borneo  is,  in  contrast  to  both  Sumatra  and 
Java,  more  massive,  and  affords  thus  more  “continental”  con- 
ditions. It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find  in  it  a more  com- 
plex population  than  in  the  islands  just  considered.1  The  peoples 
of  Borneo  may  be  divided  into  two  very  unequal  groups  on  the 
basis  of  their  physical  types,  one  characterized  by  the  domi- 
nance of  the  Palae-Alpine  type,  the  other,  apparently  of  very 
much  smaller  size,  by  that  of  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- 
Australoid.  The  first  group  may  be  further  subdivided  into 
three  different  sections,  each  marked  by  a different  secondary 
type.  The  Iban,  or  Sea  Dyaks  of  the  northwestern  coast,  and 
the  Punan,  nomad  hunters  of  the  interior,  alike  show  the  Alpine 
type  as  the  secondary  factor.  The  first  of  these  are  known  to 
be  recent  comers  to  the  region.  Among  the  people  of  the  south- 
eastern districts  about  Bandjermassim,  the  Kenyahs,  most  of  the 
Klemantans  and  some,  at  least,  of  the  Kayan,  the  Proto-Negroid 
and  Proto-Australoid  types  occupy  second  place,  just  as  among 
the  main  mass  of  the  population  in  Sumatra.  The  third  section 

1 Garrett,  1912;  Hose  & McDougall,  1912;  Nieuwenhuis,  1903;  Haddon,  1901; 
Swaving,  1861-62;  Turner,  1907;  Flower,  1879;  Fridolin,  1900. 


INDONESIA 


357 


includes  only  the  Kayan  measured  by  Nieuwenhuis,  among 
whom  the  Caspian  type  ranks  next  to  the  dominant  Palae-Alpine. 
While  it  is  possible  that  this  difference  is  due  to  variation  in 
methods  of  measurement,  the  probability  is  that  it  bespeaks  a 
real  distinction. 

The  second  and  smaller  of  the  two  groups  into  which  the 
population  of  Borneo  may  be  divided,  characterized  by  the  pre- 
dominance of  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- Australoid  types,  in- 
cludes the  Murut,  Kalabit,  and  Dusun  of  northern  Sarawak  and 
British  North  Borneo,  and  the  Ulu-Ayar  of  the  upper  Kapoeas 
River,  and  perhaps  some  of  the  southwestern  Klemantans. 
Among  all  of  these,  except  the  Ulu-Ayar,  the  Palae-Alpine  type 
is  secondary,  but  in  their  case  the  Caspian  again  comes  into 
prominence.  The  significance  of  the  survival  in  Borneo  of  a 
factor  of  this  type  will  be  apparent  later  in  discussing  the  popu- 
lation of  Micronesia  and  Polynesia. 

The  Philippine  Islands  show  very  wide  variation  in  the  char- 
acter of  their  population,  and  here  only  in  the  whole  of  Indonesia 
do  we  find  survivors  of  the  Negrito  people,  who  are  believed  to 
have  once  been  much  more  widely  spread.  With  very  few  ex- 
ceptions, no  adequate  data  are  available  for  the  Philippines,1  and 
abundant  cranial  material  is  only  to  be  had  for  the  Negrito.2 
We  may,  on  the  basis  of  wofully  meagre  data,  divide  the  popu- 
lation into  four  groups.  The  first  of  these  is  that  of  the  Negrito, 
who  are  confined  in  the  main  to  the  mountainous  country  on 
the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of  Luzon,  and  to  northern  Pala- 
wan and  Mindanao.  Of  very  short,  almost  pigmy  stature  (av- 
erage r45  cm.),  the  purer  groups  are  dark  in  color,  with  frizzly 
or  even  woolly  hair.  Almost  purely  brachycephalic,  they  show 
an  overwhelming  majority  of  the  Palae-Alpine  type,  the  only 
other  present,  except  as  a mere  trace,  being  the  Alpine.  The 
character  and  extent  of  the  differentiation  between  these  and 
other  Negroid  Palae-Alpine  peoples,  such  as  the  Andamanese 


1 Barrows,  1910;  Bean  (all  titles);  Christie,  1909;  Kroeber,  1906;  Sullivan,  1918; 
Virchow,  1870,  1871,  1883;  Bauer,  F.,  1900;  Koeze,  1901-04;  Reed,  1904. 

1 Baer.  1879;  Virchow,  1871;  Koeze,  op.  cit. 


358 


OCEANIA 


and  the  African  Pigmies  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  non-Negroid 
peoples  of  the  same  type  in  all  parts  of  the  world  on  the  other, 
together  with  the  problems  involved,  will  be  discussed  in  the 
final  chapter.  A typical  example  of  the  Negrito  is  shown  on  Plate 
XXVI,  Fig.  3. 

The  second  group  is  characterized  by  the  dominance  of  the 
Proto-Negroid  and  Proto-Australoid  types.  The  available  data 
for  this  group  is,  however,  very  meagre.  It  comprises  what  are 
described  as  the  Tagbanua  of  Palawan,  but  which  probably  are 
in  reality  Battak  from  the  same  island,  and  the  Igorot  of  north- 
ern Luzon.  It  is  extremely  probable  that  other  tribes  will  be 
found  to  belong  to  this  same  group,  when  adequate  materials  are 
available.  In  the  Tagbanua  (Battak)  the  Proto-Negroid  type  is 
in  large  majority,  followed  by  the  Palae-Alpine  and  Proto-Austra- 
loid. For  the  Igorot  the  material  is  conflicting,  since  measure- 
ments on  the  living  indicate  a predominance  of  Proto-Negroid 
and  Proto- Australoid  types,  with  the  Palae-Alpine  as  secondary; 
whereas  the  very  few  crania  show  a large  majority  of  brachy- 
cephalic  forms,  mainly  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine.  Owing  to  the 
prevalence  of  head-hunting,  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  crania 
are  in  reality  those  of  some  other  tribe,  so  that  we  are  probably 
safer  in  relying  on  the  measurements  of  the  living.  The  por- 
trait given  on  Plate  XXVI,  Fig.  4,  may  be  taken  as  typical  of 
this  group. 

To  the  third  group,  which  is  primarily  Palae-Alpine,  belong  in 
all  probability  a considerable  part  of  the  population  of  the  islands. 
The  Tagalog  and  Ilocano  certainly,  probably  the  Bisayans  and 
the  Mangyan  ( ?),  and  possibly  some  of  the  Mandaya  and  Manobo 
are  to  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  this  group,  which  here,  as  in 
Sumatra,  Java,  and  Borneo,  appears  to  constitute  the  mass  of 
the  living  population.  The  fourth  and  last  group  includes  the 
Subanun  of  western  Mindanao  and  the  “Moros”  of  the  same 
island  and  the  Sulu  archipelago.  In  these  the  Alpine  type  is  pre- 
ponderant, with  the  Palae-Alpine  secondary,  just  as  among  the 
Menangkabau  Malays  in  Sumatra. 

Practically  all  the  peoples  of  the  Philippines  are  below 


Fig.  i.  Menangicabatj  Malay. 


Fig.  2.  Battak. 


Fig. 


Negrito.  (Philippines.) 


Fig.  4.  Igorot.  (Philippines.) 


PLATE  XXVI. 


INDONESIA 


359 


medium  stature.  One  or  two  small  groups  of  Tagalogs  average 
just  over  165  cm.,  but  the  majority  of  them,  together  with  the 
Bisayans,  Iloko,  Manobo,  Moros,  etc.,  lie  between  160  and  165 
cm.  The  Igorot,  Ifugao,  Mandaya,  Tagbanua,  Ilongot,  etc.,  have 
average  statures  ranging  between  160  and  155  cm.,  while  the 
Negritos  are  the  shortest  of  all,  averaging  between  150  and  145 
cm.  The  hair  throughout  the  Philippines  is  in  general  straight 
or  wavy,  the  latter  form  being  chiefly  found  among  the  wilder, 
interior  tribes;  only  in  the  case  of  the  Negritos  do  we  get  curly 
and  woolly  forms.  In  skin  color  there  is  great  variation,  but 
few  systematic  observations  are  available.  The  Negrito  range 
from  black  to  dark  brown,  while  the  other  tribes  vary  from 
medium  brown  to  very  light  shades. 

Data  on  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  peoples  of  For- 
mosa1 are  as  yet  but  scanty,  although  the  Japanese  have  pub- 
lished elaborate  accounts  of  their  culture.  Torii2  has,  however, 
made  a valuable  study  of  the  Yami  of  the  island  of  Botel  Tobago, 
off  the  southern  end  of  Formosa,  from  which  it  appears  that  the 
people  here  are  under  medium  stature  (average  160  cm.),  light 
brown  in  color,  and  with  prevailingly  straight  hair.  The  brachy- 
cephalic  and  dolichocephalic  factors  are  exactly  balanced,  the 
Proto- Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  being,  however,  slightly 
more  numerous  than  the  Palae-Alpine.  Of  the  Alpine  there  is 
but  a small  minority.  On  the  whole  thus,  the  people  of  Botel 
Tobago  resemble  the  Igorot. 

The  population  of  the  curiously  shaped  island  of  Celebes3 
appears  to  be  divided  into  two  groups.  In  both  the  brachy- 
cephalic  Palae-Alpine  type  is  in  the  majority;  in  one,  however, 
the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- Australoid  types  are  secondary,  in 
the  other  the  Alpine.  To  the  first  group  belong  the  Toala  and 
Tokea,  rather  primitive  peoples,  and  perhaps  (?)  the  Bugis  and 
Macassars  of  much  higher  culture,  all  living  in  the  southern 
peninsula.  The  first  two  are  short  (average  157  cm.),  dark- 

1 Eldridge,  1877;  Turner,  1907;  Davidson,  1903.  2 Torii,  1912. 

3 Arndt,  1854;  Lubbers,  1893;  Sarasin,  F.,  1906;  Flower,  1879;  Fridolin,  1900; 

Ten  Kate,  1881,  1915  a. 


360 


OCEANIA 


skinned  folk  with  wavy  or  even  curly  hair,  predominantly  Palae- 
Alpine  in  type  with  some  admixture,  perhaps,  of  the  Negrito 
variety.  The  Toala  have  a strong  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- 
Australoid  factor,  which  is  less  marked  in  the  Tokea  and  absent 
(?)  among  the  neighboring  Tomuna,  who  are  in  skin  color  very 
dark.  The  Bugis  and  Macassars  (who  are  a rather  mixed  people, 
as  we  know)  are,  according  to  Sarasin,  somewhat  taller  (average 
162  cm.)  and  lighter  in  color,  but,  like  the  Toala,  have  a consider- 
able Negroid  factor.  The  second  group  includes,  apparently, 
all  the  remainder  of  the  population,  except  the  people  of  Mina- 
hassa  in  the  extreme  northeast.  Slightly  under  medium  stature, 
brown-skinned  and  straight-haired,  they  have  a considerable  sec- 
ondary factor  of  the  Alpine  type.  Whether  or  not  the  Bugis  and 
Macassars  should  be  classed  with  this  group  rather  than  with  the 
first  is  uncertain,  for,  whereas  Sarasin’s  measurements  would  place 
them  with  the  Toala  and  Tokea,  Ten  Kate’s  data  show  them  to 
have,  like  the  Toradja  and  the  majority  of  the  whole  population, 
a considerable  Alpine  element.  If  culture  may  be  taken  as  a 
guide  in  the  matter,  we  should  certainly  accept  the  latter  rather 
than  the  former  result.  The  Minahassa  people  are  the  tallest  in 
the  island,  with  an  average  of  165  cm.  They  are  very  light  in 
color,  have  straight  black  hair  and  very  “Mongoloid”  features. 
No  measurements,  however,  are  available,  so  that  we  can  only 
note  that  by  their  own  tradition  they  are  relatively  recent  immi- 
grants to  Celebes. 

We  come  finally  to  the  smaller  islands  east  of  Java  and  Cele- 
bes, and  between  them  and  New  Guinea.  For  the  Moluccas1 
the  data  are  very  meagre.  Apparently,  however,  the  mass  of 
the  population  is  primarily  of  Palae-Alpine  type,  although  there 
are  small  groups  of  people  among  the  so-called  Alfures  in  the 
mountainous  interior  of  the  islands,  among  whom  there  is  a 
large  and,  in  some  cases,  perhaps  a dominant  Negroid  element. 
In  all  these  islands  the  mixed  character  of  the  people  is  shown 
by  the  wide  variation  in  skin  color  and  in  the  character  of  the 
hair.  For  the  islands  forming  a long  chain  east  of  Java2  the  facts 

1 Kukenthal,  1897;  Virchow  1882  b,  1889  c;  Zuckerkandl,  1867. 

2 Ten  Kate,  1915  b. 


INDONESIA 


361 


are  clearer.  In  those  nearest  to  Java  the  brachycephalic  factors 
apparently  prevail,  whereas  in  Rotti,  Flores,  and  Timor  there 
are  groups  among  whom  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Pro  to- Austra- 
loid types  are  strongly  represented.  Farther  east,  in  the  Babar 
Islands,1  the  Tenimber  group,1  and  the  Kei  and  Aru1  Islands, 
we  have  fairly  good  cranial  data.  In  the  first  the  people  are  evi- 
dently very  much  mixed,  but  there  is  a nearly  even  balance  be- 
tween brachycephalic  and  dolichocephalic  factors,  the  Pate- 
Alpine  being  in  largest  proportion,  followed  by  the  Caspian  and 
Proto-Negroid.  In  Tenimber  the  population  is  also  mixed,  with 
wide  differences  between  the  males  and  females,  the  former  being 
predominantly  Pate-Alpine  and  Alpine,  whereas  the  latter  are 
in  majority  Proto-Negroid.  Finally,  in  the  Aru  Islands,  we  have 
a population  primarily  dolichocephalic,  with  the  Proto-Negroid 
strongly  dominant,  the  Pate-Alpine  being  secondary,  and  thus 
comparable  with  the  Melanesian  peoples  of  New  Guinea  toward 
the  east.  How  far  these  Negroid  factors  in  the  more  eastern 
islands  are  traceable  to  an  aboriginal  stratum  or  how  far  they 
are  the  result  of  the  importation  of  slaves  from  New  Guinea  is 
not  sure;  but  in  most  cases  where  these  factors  are  found  they 
characterize  the  interior  rather  than  the  coastal  people,  and  are 
most  probably,  therefore,  to  be  regarded  as  aboriginal. 

If  we  attempt  to  reconstruct  the  racial  history  of  Indonesia 
as  a whole,  we  may,  I believe,  assume  the  oldest  stratum  of  popu- 
lation to  have  been  one  made  up  of  the  Negrito  Pate-Alpine  and 
the  Pro  to- Australoid  types.  From  the  extreme  marginal  posi- 
tion of  the  Negrito  remnants  to-day,  it  seems  probable  that  in 
parts  at  least  of  Indonesia  they  were  actually  the  earliest  occu- 
pants. That  the  Proto-Australoid  was  very  early  in  the  area, 
however,  seems  to  be  suggested  by  the  existence  in  Java  in  ter- 
tiary times  of  the  Pithecanthropus  erectus,  which,  in  so  far  as  it 
resembles  actual  human  types,  is  nearest  to  the  Proto-Austra- 
loid. 

At  a very  early  period,  perhaps  contemporary  even  with  the 
later  Pateolithic  times  in  Europe,  a stream  of  peoples  primarily 

1 Bickel,  1917. 


3G2 


OCEANIA 


of  Proto-Negroid  type,  flowed  from  the  southeastern  corner  of 
Asia  into  Indonesia.  The  older  occupants  were  in  part  driven 
before  them,  in  part  forced  into  the  interior  of  the  islands,  in 
part  amalgamated,  with  the  result  that  a mixed  population,  com- 
parable with  that  of  New  Guinea  to-day,  dominated  the  whole 
area.  Coincidently  perhaps  in  part  with  this  movement,  but  in 
the  main  at  a somewhat  later  date,  probably  toward  the  end  of 
Neolithic  times,  a stream  of  immigrants  of  much  higher  culture 
and  very  different  physical  type,  spread  here  and  there  among 
the  islands.  Largely  of  Caspian  type,  with  a Mediterranean 
mixture,  they  were  fair-skinned  and  straight  or  wavy-haired, 
and,  like  their  Negroid  predecessors,  seem  to  have  come  into 
Indonesia  from  the  Indo-Chinese  region.  Their  influence  may 
have  been  considerable;  until  we  have  more  abundant  cranial 
material  we  cannot  trace  its  extent,  but  indications  of  their  pres- 
ence survive,  so  far  as  we  know,  only  in  a few  places. 

The  great  mass  of  the  peoples  of  Indonesia  to-day  are,  how- 
ever, derived  from  a later  wave,  this  time  of  brachycephalic 
Palae-Alpine  folk,  who  had  come  down  in  great  numbers  into 
Indo-China,  as  has  been  shown  in  a previous  section.  They 
seem  to  have  come  on  into  Indonesia  in  a veritable  flood,  and,  as 
before,  the  older  occupants  were  dispossessed  and  absorbed,  and 
the  whole  character  of  the  population  became  radically  changed 
from  one  resembling  that  at  present  found  in  New  Guinea,  to  one 
essentially  like  that  of  to-day.  The  older  stratum,  part  Proto- 
Negroid,  part  Caspian,  with  minorities  of  the  now  dominant 
Palae-Alpines,  fused  into  what  has  been  called  by  some  the 
“Indonesian  type,”  and  took  refuge  in  the  interior  of  the  larger 
islands. 

Finally,  at  a period  which  may  well  have  been  as  late  as  the 
middle  of  the  first  millennium  B.  C.,  a last  body  of  immigrants 
appeared — the  true  Malays.  This  time  the  influx  came  ap- 
parently from  the  north,  from  the  southern  Chinese  coast,  where 
a bold,  seafaring  folk  had  long  occupied  the  shore  and  were  being 
dispossessed  by  the  expansion  of  the  Chinese  people.  They 
sought  new  homes  across  the  seas,  and  settled  along  the  western 


INDONESIA 


363 


coasts  of  the  Philippines  and  Borneo,  and,  ascending  the  large 
rivers  of  eastern  Sumatra,  colonized  the  healthy  central  high- 
lands whence,  as  the  so-called  Menangkabau  Malays,  they  came 
traditionally  in  the  twelfth  century  to  the  Malay  Peninsula,  a 
considerable  part  of  which  they  conquered  and  overran.  These 
true  Malays  also  wandered  eastward,  and  added  a considerable 
increment  here  and  there  to  the  coast  peoples.  Yet  in  Indonesia 
as  a whole  the  true  Malay  forms  merely  a surface  layer,  the 
great  bulk  of  the  people  being  of  the  older  Palae-Alpine  type. 


CHAPTER  II 


MELANESIA  AND  AUSTRALIA 
I.  Melanesia 

To  the  archipelago  beginning  with  the  great  island  of  New 
Guinea  and  extending  eastward  to  New  Caledonia  and  Fiji,  the 
name  of  Melanesia  is  given,  because  its  inhabitants,  in  compari- 
son with  those  of  the  other  islands  in  the  Pacific,  are  much  darker 
skinned.  New  Guinea,  nearly  1,500  miles  long  and  500  miles  wide 
at  its  broadest  part,  is  the  largest  island  in  the  world,  and,  with 
its  lofty  snow-capped  mountains  rising  from  the  steaming  tropical 
jungle,  affords  a great  variety  of  environment.  The  more  easterly 
islands  are,  as  a rule,  small,  although  most  are  more  or  less  moun- 
tainous. On  the  west  Melanesia  is  in  close  touch  with  Indonesia, 
and  on  the  south  with  Australia.  On  the  north  wide  stretches 
of  open  sea  separate  it  from  Micronesia,  but  at  its  eastern  ex- 
tremity, a multitude  of  small  islets  connect  it  with  the  Ellice, 
Samoan  and  Tongan  groups  of  Western  Polynesia.  Linguisticallv 
the  inhabitants  of  Melanesia  are  divisible  into  two  groups,  those 
on  the  one  hand  speaking  so-called  Melanesian  languages,  who 
occupy  almost  all  the  smaller  islands  and  considerable  portions 
of  the  coast  of  New  Guinea,  especially  in  the  southeast  and  north; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  those  speaking  Papuan  languages,  who  are 
spread  over  most  of  the  interior  and  the  rest  of  the  coasts  of  New 
Guinea,  parts  of  the  Bismarck  archipelago,  and  are  found  in  the 
interiors  of  several  of  the  islands  in  the  Solomon  group  and,  per- 
haps, in  parts  of  the  New  Hebrides.  While  the  Melanesian  lan- 
guages are  related  to  the  Malayan  spoken  throughout  Indonesia,, 
the  Micronesian  and  Polynesian  languages,  and  the  Papuan  are 
quite  distinct,  unless  they  have  some  connection  with  those  of 
Northern  Australia,  as  Schmidt1  seems  to  have  shown. 

1 Schmidt,  W.,  1908,  1912-14. 

364 


MELANESIA  AND  AUSTRALIA 


365 


On  the  basis  of  their  physical  type,  the  people  of  Melanesia 
are  divisible  into  two  main  groups,  in  one  of  which  the  dolicho- 
cephalic factors  are  dominant,  whereas  in  the  other  brachyce- 
phalic  types  prevail.  The  distribution  of  these  two  groups  is 
shown  on  the  maps  given  on  Plates  XXII  to  XXV.  In  discussing 
these  groups  more  in  detail,  we  may  best  begin  with  New  Guinea, 
and  then  consider  the  smaller,  eastern  islands. 

The  satisfactory  determination  of  the  physical  types  in  New 
Guinea  is  rendered  extremely  difficult  by  the  absence  of  any 
adequate  cranial  material,  data  being  available  for  only  a few 
small  areas,1  and  by  the  absence  of  any  information  on  the  liv- 
ing except  as  to  the  cephalic  index,  from  almost  the  whole  of 
the  region.  On  the  basis  of  existing  materials,2  however,  the 
primarily  dolichocephalic  peoples  occupy  the  whole  of  the  west- 
ern and  southern  coast  from  Geelvink  Bay  around  to  the  Purari 
delta  at  the  head  of  the  Papuan  Gulf.  On  the  north  coast,  the 
conditions  are  more  complex,  in  that  while  much  of  the  shore 
is  held  by  them,  there  are  several  areas,  for  example  west  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Augusta  River,  about  Astrolabe  Bay,  Huon  Gulf, 
etc.,  where  brachycephalic  types  prevail.  The  exact  delimita- 
tion of  these  areas  is  not  yet  possible.  Along  the  southern  coast 
from  East  Cape  to  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Papua,  the  popu- 
lation is  clearly  very  mixed,  now  one  and  now  the  other  form 
prevailing,  but  we  have  no  data  which  will  enable  us  to  plot  the 
distribution  with  any  accuracy.  In  the  interior  of  Dutch  New 
Guinea  the  people  are,  at  least  in  the  south,  brachycephalic,  and 
the  same  holds  true  for  some  interior  tribes  in  British  New 
Guinea,  such  as  the  Mafulu  and  among  the  Kai  and  other  in- 
terior tribes  inland  from  Huon  Gulf.  Along  the  great  rivers, 
however,  such  as  the  Fly  and  the  Augusta,  dolichocephalic 
peoples  seem  to  reach  far  inland. 

Further  analysis  reveals  the  fact  that  the  dolichocephalic 
peoples  are  everywhere  primarily  of  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- 

1 Broek,  van  der,  1915  a;  Mantegazza,  1881;  Gray,  1901;  Dorsey,  1897;  Sergi, 
1898;  Spital,  1906. 

2 Broek,  van  der,  1915  b,  1918;  Chalmers,  1897;  Haddon,  1915-16;  Koch,  1908; 
Schlaginhaufen,  1914;  Seligmann,  1909. 


366 


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Australoid  types,  the  brachycephalic  groups  on  the  other  hand 
being  almost  exclusively  Palse-Alpine.  As  we  possess  cranial 
data  of  any  value  for  so  few  points  only,  the  problem  of  work- 
ing out  the  distribution  of  the  types  is  difficult,  to  say  the  least, 
but,  so  far  as  one  can  infer,  the  situation  is  somewhat  as  follows. 
In  the  island  of  Mysore  in  Geelvink  Bay,  the  Proto-Australoid 
type  is  in  large  majority,  as  it  is  in  a lesser  degree  in  the  Purari 
delta  in  the  Gulf  of  Papua,  and  in  the  western  islands  in  Torres 
Straits.  On  the  lower  Lorenz  River  (central  southwest  coast), 
however,  the  Proto-Negroid  type  is  dominant.  A further  fact 
of  interest  is  that  throughout  the  coast  region  of  western  New 
Guinea  (whence  alone  we  have  adequate  cranial  material)  this 
dolichocephalic  population  includes  a not  inconsiderable  lep- 
torrhine  element,  both  Caspian  and  Mediterranean ! What  is 
surprising,  however,  is  that  these  factors  appear  to  increase  east- 
ward, and  attain  their  greatest  importance  in  the  crania  from 
the  Purari  delta,  where  the  Caspian  type  is  actually  secondary ! 
It  is  present  also  among  the  brachycephalic  groups,  although 
generally  in  smaller  proportion,  yet  in  the  population  of  Leitere, 
about  in  the  centre  of  the  northern  coast  of  the  island,  it  is  as 
prominent  as  in  the  Purari  delta ! An  explanation  for  the  pres- 
ence of  this  unexpected  type  will  be  suggested  later,  but  for  the 
moment  a word  more  must  be  said  in  regard  to  the  brachyce- 
phalic forms.  These  are,  as  stated  previously,  almost  exclu- 
sively platyrrhine,  the  leptorrhine  types  being  present  anywhere 
(so  far  as  our  data  show)  only  as  a very  slight  trace.  In  the 
three  considerable  cranial  series  which  we  possess  (none  of 
which,  however,  come  from  a brachycephalic  area)  the  Palae- 
Alpine  alone  is  represented.  Whether  this  is  the  normal  or  the 
Negrito  form  we  have  as  yet  no  means  of  knowing,  but  I be- 
lieve that  in  the  case  of  the  interior  peoples,  who  as  we  shall 
see  are  of  strikingly  short  stature,  it  is  in  the  main  the  latter 
form  which  is  present.  On  the  coast,  however,  especially  in  the 
north,  it  is  much  more  probably  the  ordinary  form. 

In  stature,  the  inhabitants  of  New  Guinea  show  wide  varia- 
tion. Two  groups,  the  Kai  in  the  interior  north  of  Huon  Gulf, 


MELANESIA  AND  AUSTRALIA 


367 


and  the  Tapiro  of  the  high  ranges  in  the  interior  of  southwestern 
Dutch  New  Guinea,  appear  to  be  true  Pigmies,  their  average 
stature  being  less  than  145  cm.  Most  of  the  peoples  of  the  in- 
terior, throughout  New  Guinea,  are  also  distinctly  short,  the 
average  stature  varying  from  15 1 to  157  cm.,  and  these  short 
statures,  furthermore,  occupy  most  of  the  coast  of  what  was  for- 
merly German  New  Guinea.  Those  of  the  southern  shore,  on 
the  other  hand,  from  Etna  Bay  in  western  Dutch  New  Guinea 
to  East  Cape  and  around  approximately  to  the  boundary  be- 
tween what  was  formerly  German  New  Guinea  and  the  British 
territories,  are  taller,  with  statures  over  160  cm.,  culminating  in 
the  Gulf  of  Papua  and  the  adjacent  portion  of  southeastern 
Dutch  New  Guinea,  where  they  reach  167  cm.  or  over.  It  may 
be  said  therefore  that,  in  a general  way,  the  shorter  statures  are 
found  among  those  peoples  who  are  primarily  brachycephalic 
and  Palae-Alpine,  whereas  the  taller  types  are  associated  with 
the  dolichocephalic  group,  culminating  where  the  Caspian  fac- 
tors are  strongest. 

To  attempt  to  unravel  the  probably  complicated  racial  his- 
tory of  an  area  where  so  little  accurate  data  are  available,  is  cer- 
tainly hazardous,  yet  its  broader  outlines  may  perhaps  be  sketched 
in  very  tentative  fashion.  In  the  absence  of  all  archaeological 
materials,  and  taking  into  account  the  probable  history  of  the 
adjacent  areas,  we  are  led  to  assume  that  the  oldest  stratum  of 
population  is  represented  by  the  short-statured,  Palae-Alpine 
folk  of  the  interior.  The  earliest  occupants  of  New  Guinea,  on 
this  theory,  would  have  been  pigmy  Negritos,  comparable  to 
those  still  surviving  in  the  Philippines,  and  surviving  now  in 
New  Guinea  in  any  purity  only  in  the  more  inaccessible  por- 
tions of  the  interior,  and  exemplified  in  the  Tapiro,  of  whom  a 
portrait  is  given  on  Plate  XXVII,  Fig.  1.  Following  the  occupa- 
tion by  this  earliest  population,  there  came  from  Indonesia  a 
drift  of  taller  folk,  predominantly  of  Proto-Australoid  type,  who 
spread  along  the  coasts  and  up  the  larger  rivers.  After  a period 
of  unknown  length,  during  which  these  newcomers  became  domi- 
nant, a new  wave,  this  time  primarily  of  Proto-Negroid  peoples, 


368 


OCEANIA 


came  from  the  same  direction,  spread  like  its  predecessor  along 
the  coasts,  and  in  time  acquired  almost  everywhere  the  predomi- 
nant position.  An  example  of  a blend  between  these  Proto- 
Negroid  and  Proto-Australoid  types  is  given  on  Plate  XXVII, 
Fig.  2.  Toward  the  end  of  this  period  a considerable  factor  of 
Caspian  type  was  introduced,  either  as  an  element  absorbed  by 
the  later  groups  of  migrants  while  still  in  Indonesia,  or  perhaps 
as  a separate,  small  stream  by  itself.  I suspect  that  its  in- 
fluence will  be  found  to  have  been  most  intense  in  British  New 
Guinea. 

The  subsequent  events  are  still  obscure.  We  are  practically 
forced  by  the  conditions  which  we  meet  in  Polynesia  to  assume 
that  the  most  recent  elements  in  its  population  are  traceable  to 
a drift  of  brachycephalic  peoples  coming  from  Indonesia.  In 
part,  at  least,  these  eastward-moving  migrants,  of  whom  the 
earlier  were  mainly  Palae- Alpine  (but  not  Negrito)  and  the  later 
Alpine,  must  have  skirted  the  shores  of  New  Guinea,  and  might 
be  expected  to  have  left  traces  of  their  passage.  The  earlier  or 
Palae-Alpine  drift  must  have  occurred  after  that  of  the  Proto- 
Negroid.  In  our  search  for  evidences  of  its  passage  we  are  re- 
stricted to  the  northern  coast  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  south- 
ern, where  alone  (except  for  the  interior)  brachycephalic  folk  are 
found.  In  the  absence  of  any  adequate  metrical  data  we  have 
to  depend  on  skin  color  and  the  character  of  the  hair  for  clews, 
since  lighter  skins  and  straighter  hair  might  be  expected  to  be 
the  result  of  Palae-Alpine  mixture.  Scattered  along  the  northern 
coast,  areas  so  characterized  are  to  be  found  in  which  either  all 
the  population  is  lighter  and  straighter-haired,  or  individuals 
having  these  characteristics  are  more  common.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  some  of  the  small  islands  off  the  coast,  where  the 
new  immigrants  could  have  more  easily  secured  a foothold  than 
on  the  mainland.  The  largest  frequency  of  lighter  skins  and 
straighter  hair  is  found  on  the  southern  coast  of  British  New 
Guinea,  between  Cape  Possession  and  Orangerie  Bay,  but  how 
far  these  are  due  to  brachycephalic  Palae-Alpines  and  how  far 
to  the  earlier  penetration  of  Caspian  elements,  it  is,  in  the  ab- 


Fig.  i.  Tapiro  Pigmy.  (New  Guinea.) 


Fig.  2.  Melanesian.  (New  Guinea  ) 


MELANESIA  AND  AUSTRALIA 


369 


sence  of  any  cranial  material,  impossible  to  say.  A further  in- 
dication of  Palae-Alpine  admixture  is  seen  in  the  not  infrequent 
occurrence  of  the  Mongoloid  eye,  which  is  absent  apparently 
(?)  where  the  lighter-skinned  elements  do  not  show  themselves. 
On  the  north  coast,  so  far  as  our  meagre  data  go,  any  influence 
from  brachycephalic,  light-skinned  folk  must  be  attributed  to 
the  Palae-Alpine  type,  since  there  seems  to  be  no  trace  of  the 
Alpine  elements. 

A puzzling  problem,  however,  arises  in  regard  to  the  Alpine 
type  elsewhere.  Although  not  traceable  on  the  north  coast,  it 
does  appear  as  a minority  factor  in  southwest  Dutch  New  Guinea, 
both  on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior,  as  among  the  Tapiro  Pig- 
mies, who,  on  the  basis  of  all  our  other  evidence,  we  must  assume 
to  be  the  oldest  residents  of  the  region.  And  although  absent 
on  the  northern  coast,  it  turns  up  among  the  people  of  the 
Torricelli  Mountains  inland  from  the  shore ! In  what  way  this 
Alpine  factor,  which  everywhere  throughout  the  Oceanic  area 
is  evidently  of  all  types  the  most  recent,  reached  these  interior 
tribes  it  is  impossible  to  say  and,  until  we  have  more  adequate 
data,  it  is  quite  useless  to  speculate. 

The  lesser  island  sof  Melanesia  present  in  general  the  same 
problems  as  New  Guinea,  and  are,  for  the  most  part,  as  imper- 
fectly known.  Subject  to  the  same  immigrant  streams  as  the 
greater  western  land  mass,  these  smaller  islands,  owing  to  their 
very  smallness,  were  less  able  to  retain  unchanged  the  older 
strata  of  population.  Yet  almost  everywhere  that  any  study 
of  the  people  has  been  made  a difference  between  the  coastal 
and  interior  population  has  been  noted,  and  in  the  various  isl- 
ands of  a large  group,  as,  for  example,  the  Solomons  and  New 
Hebrides,  wide  differences  in  physical  type  are  usually  observed. 

With  a few  clear  exceptions,  the  large  majority  of  the  people 
of  the  smaller  islands  are  predominantly  of  the  dolichocephalic, 
“Melanesian”  types  (i.  e.,  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- Australoid), 
as  shown  by  the  maps,  Plates  XXII  to  XXV.  Wherever  the 
data  will  permit  the  determination  of  the  types,  the  Proto-Ne- 
groid is  always  strongly  dominant.  This  is  the  case,  for  example, 


370 


OCEANIA 


in  the  coastal  population  of  the  Gazelle  peninsula  in  New  Britain,1 
in  the  southern  portion  of  New  Ireland,2  and  in  the  island  of  New 
Hannover;3  it  is  also  true  in  the  D’Entrecasteaux  archipelago,4 
in  the  northern  Solomons,6  parts  of  the  New  Hebrides,  most  of 
New  Caledonia,6  the  Loyalty  islands,6  and  Fiji.7  A dominance 
of  brachycephalic  forms  is  clearly  proved  as  yet  only  among  the 
Baining8  of  the  interior  of  northern  New  Britain,  for  the  people 
of  central  and  northern  New  Ireland,9  Woodlark  Island4  and  (?) 
the  Trobriand  group,  some  of  the  smaller  islands  of  the  central 
Solomons,10  and  parts  of  the  New  Hebrides  (especially  Espiritu 
Santo).11  It  is  perhaps  true  also  of  the  southeast  coast  of  New 
Caledonia.  In  most  cases  these  brachycephalic  peoples  are 
either  interior  tribes  distinct  from  the  coastal  peoples  (sometimes 
also  in  language,  speaking  Papuan  languages  rather  than  Melane- 
sian), or  they  represent  a social  class  in  the  community,  some- 
times the  common  people,  more  rarely  (?)  the  aristocracy. 

We  must  now  return  for  a moment  to  the  consideration  of 
the  dolichocephalic  group,  to  call  attention  to  one  or  two  points 
of  significance.  Although  the  Proto-Negroid  type  is  in  all  cases 
in  the  strong  majority,  it  is  always  associated  with  the  Proto- 
Australoid,  which  usually  holds  second  place  except  in  New  Han- 
nover, where  the  Caspian  takes  its  place,  and  in  the  Telei  of  Bou- 
gainville in  the  northern  Solomons,  among  whom  the  Palae-Alpine 
is  of  secondary  importance.  The  latter  case  may  probably  be 
explained  on  the  basis  that  the  Telei,  a Papuan-speaking  tribe, 
are  in  part  a purely  interior  people  and  have  thus  preserved  a 
large  element  of  the  older  Palae-Alpine  type  in  spite  of  their  mix- 
ture with  the  later  Proto-Negroid  immigrants  who  occupied  the 
coast.  The  strength  of  the  Caspian  element  among  the  people 
of  New  Hannover  is  not  so  easily  accounted  for.  It  may  have 
been  brought  by  the  Proto-Negroid  immigrants,  but  seems  more 
likely  to  be  due  to  the  influence  of  the  separate  drift  of  Caspian 

1 MacCurdy,  1914;  Miiller-Wismar,  1905.  2 Friederici,  1912. 

3 Anthropologische  Sammlungen  Deutschlands.  4 Sergi,  1895  a. 

“Frizzi,  1913.  6 Sarasin,  1916-18.  7 Krause,  1881;  Flower,  1879. 

8 Bauer,  L.,  1915;  Friederici,  op.  cit.  9 Friederici,  op.  cit. 

10  Guppy,  1885-86;  Giuffrida-Ruggeri,  1906  a.  nSpeiser,  1911. 


MELANESIA  AND  AUSTRALIA 


371 


peoples,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  had  a considerable  influence  in 
parts  of  New  Guinea,  and  almost  certainly  passed  in  large  num- 
bers through  Micronesia  to  the  north. 

In  stature  the  peoples  of  the  smaller  islands  show,  as  in 
New  Guinea,  much  variation.  The  interior  brachycephalic, 
hypothetically  more  aboriginal,  groups,  seem  everywhere  to  be 
short  (Baining  159  cm.,  Espiritu  Santo  152  cm.).  The  majority 
of  the  population  ranges  from  162  cm.  to  168  cm.,  while  in  a few 
restricted  areas,  such  as  the  southeast  coast  of  New  Caledonia 
and  some  of  the  peoples  in  the  New  Hebrides,  the  stature  rises 
to  1 70  cm.  or  even  more.  Skin  color  is  also  very  variable,  ranging 
from  the  blue-black  of  the  northern  Solomon  islands  through 
dark  browns  to  the  lighter  browns  found  in  parts  of  the  southern 
Solomons  and  southwestern  New  Caledonia.  In  general,  how- 
ever, dark  tones  prevail.  The  hair,  lastly,  is  subject  to  similar 
local  differences.  In  general  strongly  frizzly  or  even  woolly,  it 
is  here  and  there,  particularly  along  the  eastern  margin  of  Melane- 
sia, sometimes  only  curly.  A typical  example  of  one  of  the 
eastern  Melanesians  is  shown  on  Plate  XXVII,  Fig.  3. 

We  may  tentatively  reconstruct  the  history  of  the  smaller 
islands  of  Melanesia  as  follows.  The  oldest  population  was  a 
mixed  one,  the  result  of  the  fusion  of  the  Negrito  and  Proto- 
Australoid  peoples  in  New  Guinea,  although  in  the  Bismarck 
Archipelago  the  former  may  have  occupied  the  islands  in  a fairly 
pure  state  in  the  beginning.  There  is  reason  to  believe,  however, 
that  this  ancient  Negrito  folk  were  not  able  to  make  any  lengthy 
sea  voyages,  so  that,  while  they  might  perhaps  cross  the  thirty- 
mile-wide  Dampier  Straits  from  New  Guinea  to  New  Britain, 
they  were  probably  unable  to  reach  the  Solomons  and  more 
distant  eastern  and  southern  groups,  although  their  apparent 
presence  in  Espiritu  Santo  in  the  New  Hebrides  raises  an  in- 
teresting question.  The  predominantly  Proto-Australoid  peoples 
who  streamed  into  New  Guinea  at  an  early  date,  however,  were 
better  navigators,  and  with  some  admixture  they  spread  through- 
out the  eastern  islands.  Later,  when  the  Proto-Negroid  drift 
began,  it  swept  again  through  the  whole  area,  occupying  the. 


372 


OCEANIA 


coasts  and  driving  the  older  population  inland,  or  into  certain 
islands  in  the  group.  The  part  played  here  by  the  still  later, 
light-skinned,  straight-haired  stream  of  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine 
peoples,  which  latter  in  the  main  passed  on  into  Polynesia,  is, 
as  in  New  Guinea,  still  obscure.  In  the  Bismarck  Archipelago 
they  must,  it  would  seem,  have  exerted  some  effect,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  predominantly  brachycephalic  populations  of 
the  central  and  northern  parts  of  New  Ireland  owe  part  of  their 
round-headedness  to  this  influence.  In  the  central  Solomons 
the  same  may  be  true,  although  the  lighter  skins  seem  more  com- 
mon in  the  southern  parts  of  the  group,  where  dolichocephalic 
types  are  more  in  control.  In  some  islands  of  the  New  Hebrides 
and  in  southeastern  New  Caledonia,  taller  stature,  lighter  skin 
and  the  occurrence  of  curly  or  wavy  hair  again  bespeak  the  in- 
fluence of  these  later  drifts,  but  the  apparent  absence  of  all  trace 
of  any  leptorrhine  element  indicates  that  the  very  latest  or  Al- 
pine stream  did  not  appreciably  affect  Melanesia. 

To  a slight  extent,  the  taller,  lighter-skinned  brachycephalic 
factors  along  the  eastern  margin  of  Melanesia,  may  be  due,  as 
has  long  been  supposed,  to  a recent  “backwash”  of  Polynesian 
peoples  from  Samoa  and  Tonga;  but  the  fact  that  these  western 
Polynesian  folk  are  in  very  large  measure  Alpine  in  type,  which 
factor  is  apparently  almost  lacking  in  those  parts  of  Melanesia 
where  their  influence  is  thought  to  have  made  itself  felt,  makes 
it  probable  that  the  number  of  such  recent  Polynesian  immi- 
grants has  been  so  small  as  to  be  from  the  standpoint  of  physical 
type  practically  negligable,  however  important  it  may  have 
proved  on  the  cultural  side. 

II.  Australia  and  Tasmania 

The  Australian  continent  together  with  the  adjacent  island 
of  Tasmania,  contains  (or  did  contain,  since  the  aboriginal 
peoples  in  the  latter  island  are  extinct)  a population  of  extremely 
small  size,  spread  over  an  immense  territory.  The  environment 
in  which  this  sparse  population  lived  was  in  sharp  contrast  with 


MELANESIA  AND  AUSTRALIA 


373 


that  of  all  the  rest  of  the  Oceanic  area,  for  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  western  two-thirds  of  the  continent  is  desert  or  subdesert, 
and  only  in  a relatively  narrow  strip  along  the  northern  and  east- 
ern coasts  and  in  Tasmania  is  there  a moderate  or  plentiful  rain- 
fall. At  Torres  Straits  the  northern  peninsula  of  Queensland  al- 
most comes  in  contact  with  New  Guinea,  so  that  no  skill  in  navi- 
gation would  be  required  for  the  passage  of  people  from  one  area 
to  the  other.  Indeed,  at  the  period  when  Australia  may  be  ex- 
pected to  have  received  its  first  population,  it  may  still  have  been 
joined  to  New  Guinea.  Elsewhere,  only  a skilled  seafaring  folk 
could  be  expected  to  have  reached  the  continent.  In  general, 
thus,  Australia  forms  a vast  cul-de-sac  approachable  only  by  a 
narrow  corridor  at  the  north,  and  from  which  there  was  no  exit. 

Linguistically  the  inhabitants  of  Australia  and  Tasmania 
seem  to  be  divisible  into  two  main  groups,  one  occupying  the 
northern  border  of  the  continent,  the  other  all  the  rest  of  the 
area.  The  northern  group  is  thought  perhaps  to  have  some  rela- 
tions with  the  Papuan  languages  of  the  adjacent  parts  of  New 
Guinea.  Whether  or  not  the  Tasmanian  languages  stood  wholly 
apart  from  all  others,  or  were  very  remotely  related  to  those  of 
southeastern  Australia,  is  not  yet  clear.1 

The  aboriginal  population  of  Australia2  divides  itself  nat- 
urally into  two  clearly  marked  groups,  one  occupying  the  north 
and  east  (which  includes  the  more  favorable  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent) and  the  other  the  west  and  south,  which  is  the  desert 
and  arid  region.  Both  groups  show  an  overwhelming  majority 
of  dolichocephalic  factors,  the  brachycephalic  elements  amount- 
ing to  from  2 to  7 per  cent  only.  The  first  group  is  marked  by 
the  predominance  of  the  Proto-Negroid  type,  the  second  by  that 
of  the  Proto-Australoid. 

Each  group,  moreover,  shows  significant  variations.  In  the 
first,  in  which  are  included  the  tribes  of  North  Australia,  Queens- 


1 Schmidt,  W.,  1908,  1912-14. 

2 The  main  sources  of  material  are:  Berry,  1909,  1910;  Burston,  1913;  Cauvin, 
1881;  Duckworth,  1893-94,  1894-95;  Flower,  1879;  Giuffrida-Ruggeri,  1906  a; 
HouzS,  1884-853,  1884-85  b;  Krause,  W.,  1897;  Poch,  1915;  Robertson,  1910; 
Spencer,  1899,  1904;  Turner,  1884. 


374 


OCEANIA 


land,  and  New  South  Wales,  the  proportion  of  the  Proto-Negroid 
type  varies  as  one  passes  east  and  south,  in  that  in  Northern  Aus- 
tralia it  amounts  to  over  70  per  cent,  in  Queensland  to  60  per 
cent,  and  in  New  South  Wales  to  only  just  50  per  cent  of  the 
total;  and  as  the  importance  of  this  type  decreases,  so  that  of  the 
Proto-Australoid  increases,  from  20  per  cent  in  the  first  instance 
to  35  per  cent  in  the  latter.  In  the  second  group,  which  includes 
the  tribes  of  West  Australia,  South  Australia,  and  Victoria  the 
relative  importance  of  the  Proto-Australoid  type  (which  is  domi- 
nant in  all)  increases,  while  that  of  the  Proto-Negroid  decreases 
as  one  approaches  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  continent,  so 
that  while  in  West  Australia  the  Proto-Australoid  factor  amounts 
to  a little  ove  45  per  cent,  in  South  Australia  and  Victoria  it 
rises  to  60  per  cent,  the  Proto-Negroid  decreasing  from  33  per 
cent  in  West  Australia  to  25  per  cent  in  Victoria.  The  maps 
given  on  Plate  XXVIII,  Figs.  1 and  2,  will  help  to  make  these 
relations  clear.  For  central  Australia  the  data  are  less  abundant, 
but  seem  to  indicate  an  even  balance  between  the  two  types. 
The  illustration  given  on  Plate  XXVII,  Fig.  4,  shows  a repre- 
sentative of  the  more  strongly  Proto-Australoid  type. 

The  Australian  population  thus  appears  to  be  made  up  almost 
entirely  of  two  types,  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto-Australoid, 
of  which  the  former  is  concentrated  in  the  north  and  northwest, 
the  latter  in  the  south  and  southeast.  This  gradual  decline  in 
importance  of  the  Proto-Negroid  and  increase  of  the  Proto- Aus- 
traloid is,  in  a measure,  carried  a step  farther  in  Tasmania.1  The 
extremely  primitive  population  of  this  island  became  extinct  in 
the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  although  a few  half- 
breeds  still  survive.  A study  of  the  Tasmanian  crania  reveals 
two  points  of  much  significance.  First,  that  the  proportion  of 
the  Proto-Negroid  type  present  is  lower  (19  per  cent)  than  in 
any  portion  of  Australia,  and  second,  that  the  increase  in  the 
Proto-Australoid  type  which  might  perhaps  be  expected,  is  re- 
placed by  a considerable  brachycephalic  factor,  amounting  to 
nearly  25  per  cent ! In  spite  of  this,  however,  the  Proto- Aus- 

1 Berry,  1909;  Duckworth,  1892;  Harper,  1897;  Turner,  1908. 


□ 

D 

□ 


160^ 


T-opic_of 


Capncorp 


KEY 


j 10-20% 

^20-30% 
30-40% 
140-50% 
50-60% 


120°  Longitude  130°  East  from  140 


Greenwich  150° 


PLATE  XXVIII.  AUSTRALIA. 

Figure  i {top).  Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Australoid  Types. 
Figure  2.  Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Negroid  Types. 


MELANESIA  AND  AUSTRALIA 


375 


traloid  type  remains,  as  in  the  south  and  southeast  of  Australia, 
clearly  dominant.  The  brachycephalic  factors  are  the  Palae- 
Alpine  and  the  Mongoloid.  Of  these  the  former,  which  is  almost 
certainly  the  Negrito  variety  of  the  type,  is  found  as  a trace 
throughout  Australia,  but  no  influence  of  the  Mongoloid  seems 
visible  there,  so  that  this  type  is  apparently  confined  wholly  to 
Tasmania. 

In  stature,  the  northern  tribes  are  taller  (average  171  cm.) 
than  those  in  the  southern  part  of  the  continent  and  Tasmania 
(average  165-167  cm.),  and  approximate  the  tall  folk  of  the  south- 
ern part  of  New  Guinea.  In  skin  color  the  population  is  every- 
where dark,  varying  from  a deep  chocolate,  which  is  the  most 
general  tone,  to  darker  shades  in  the  north  and  in  Tasmania. 
The  hair  is  throughout  the  larger  part  of  the  continent  wavy  or 
even  straight,  but  in  the  north  individuals  with  curly  and  frizzly 
hair  are  not  uncommon,  while  in  Tasmania  the  frizzly  type  pre- 
vails. 

How  are  these  facts  to  be  interpreted?  To  my  mind  the 
most  plausible  explanation  is  this.  The  oldest  stratum  of  popu- 
lation (one  which  may  date  back,  I believe,  to  a time  contem- 
poraneous with  the  Palaeolithic  period  in  Europe)  was  one  pre- 
dominantly of  Proto-Australoid  type,  with  minorities,  however, 
of  the  Negrito  variety  of  the  Palae- Alpine  and  of  the  Mongoloid 
typ  s.  Coming  from  the  northward  through  New  Guinea  this 
earliest  wave  of  peoples  entered  the  continent  by  way  of  the 
Cape  York  peninsula,  perhaps  before  the  formation  of  Torres 
Straits,  and  spread  thinly  throughout  the  eastern  more  favored 
portion  of  the  country.  The  brachycephalic  factors  were  asso- 
ciated mainly  with  the  advance  guard  of  this  early  drift,  the 
later  immigrants  being  more  purely  of  the  Proto- Australoid  type. 
It  is  perhaps  possible  that  a very  early  population  of  compara- 
tively pure  Negrito  type  may  have  occupied  the  continent  sparsely 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Proto-Australoids,  but  for  this  there  is 
no  clear  evidence  as  yet.  The  presence  of  the  Proto-Australoid 
type  in  Queensland  at  a very  early  but  as  yet  uncertain  period  is, 
however,  indicated  by  the  Talgai  skull.1 

1 Smith,  1918. 


376 


OCEANIA 


Later,  a new  wave  of  immigration,  following  the  route  taken 
by  the  earlier  one  but  mainly  of  Proto-Negroid  type,  came  into 
the  continent.  Like  their  predecessors  they  spread  down  the 
eastern  side  and  thence  more  thinly  elsewhere,  forcing  the  older 
population  west  and  south  into  the  desert  sections  and  Tasmania. 
Along  the  northern  coast,  however,  they  settled  in  greatest  num- 
bers. To  Tasmania  the  newcomers  penetrated  but  slightly,  per- 
haps owing  to  the  completion  of  the  subsidence  which,  in  recent 
times,  led  to  the  separation  of  the  island  from  the  mainland. 

If  this  interpretation  of  the  racial  history  of  Australia  is  cor- 
rect, then  in  the  south  of  the  continent  and  in  Tasmania  we  have 
preserved  for  us,  more  perfectly  perhaps  than  elsewhere  in  the 
world,  what  are  probably  the  oldest  types  of  the  human  race. 
Here  in  this  vast  cul-de-sac , barred  by  remoteness,  by  deserts  and 
by  the  sea  from  the  great  human  currents  which  flowed  through- 
out the  rest  of  the  world,  these  ancient  peoples,  untouched  by  any 
of  the  later  movements,  survived  as  an  anachronism.  That  in 
Tasmania,  the  most  isolated  spot  of  all,  we  should  find  the  vanish- 
ing traces  of  the  Mongoloid  type,  is,  it  seems  to  me,  most  signif- 
icant ; for  it  substantiates  the  conclusions  reached  in  Africa  and 
in  Europe,  that  this,  like  the  Proto-Australoid,  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  of  human  types,  surviving  here  and  there  only  and 
chiefly  in  the  uttermost  margins  of  the  habitable  world. 


CHAPTER  III 


POLYNESIA  AND  MICRONESIA 
I.  Polynesia 

The  island  world  of  the  middle  Pacific  is  unique.  Composed 
of  small  islands,  some  high  and  mountainous,  others  mere  low, 
coral  atolls  rising  only  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  above  the  sea;  ag- 
gregated in  groups  or  scattered  singly;  separated  from  one  an- 
other by  hundreds  or  even  thousands  of  miles  of  open  ocean,  it 
forms  in  all  probability  the  last  portion  of  the  habitable  surface 
of  the  earth  to  be  occupied  by  man.  For,  while  men  of  very  primi- 
tive culture  might  spread  by  means  of  rafts  or  clumsy  canoes 
from  continental  areas  to  islands  visible  from  the  mainland  and 
from  each  other,  and  lying  at  distances  of  perhaps  as  much  as 
fifty  miles,  they  could  not  traverse  hundreds  of  miles  of  sea,  seek- 
ing lands  unseen  and  unknown,  until  they  had  perfected  sea- 
worthy vessels  of  considerable  carrying  capacity,  and  had  ac- 
quired much  skill  in  navigation.  Primitive  man  could  thus  have 
wandered  from  Asia  through  Indonesia  to  New  Guinea  and  Aus- 
tralia, and  might  even  have  reached  some  of  the  islands  of  eastern 
Melanesia;  but  not  until  he  had  the  proper  vessels  and  requisite 
skill,  and,  further,  the  courage  to  quest  far  beyond  the  horizon, 
could  he  have  crossed  the  wide  spaces  which  for  so  long  had 
guarded  and  kept  inviolate  the  paradise-like  islands  of  the  South 
Seas. 

If  on  the  map  we  draw  a line  from  Hawaii  to  New  Zealand, 
from  here  to  Easter  Island,  and  thence  back  again  to  Hawaii, 
we  have  formed  a nearly  equilateral  triangle  of  about  5,000  miles 
on  a side,  which  includes  practically  the  whole  of  Polynesia.  Clus- 
tered roughly  in  the  centre  of  the  triangle  and  along  its  western 
side,  lie  the  great  majority  of  the  islands,  the  Samoan,  Tongan, 
Cook,  Society,  Tuamotu,  and  Marquesas  groups,  whereas  Hawaii, 

377 


378 


OCEANIA 


New  Zealand,  and  Easter  Island  lie  isolated  at  the  corners,  each 
separated  from  the  nearest  inhabited  land  by  from  one  to  two 
thousand  miles  of  sea.  This  “Polynesian  triangle”  of  New  Zea- 
land, Hawaii,  and  Easter  Island  affords,  I believe,  the  key  not 
only  to  the  problems  of  the  racial  but  also  those  of  the  cultural 
history  of  the  area  as  well. 

Linguistically  the  population  of  the  whole  of  Polynesia  forms 
a unit,  since  all  speak  closely  related  languages,  affiliated  to  the 
Melanesian  and  the  Malayan  or  Indonesian,  and  through  them 
to  the  Mon-Khmer  of  southeastern  Asia.  Culturally  and  physi- 
cally the  people  are,  however,  far  from  uniform,  for,  although  it 
has  been  the  custom  to  speak  of  “ the”  Polynesian  type  as  though 
there  were  but  one,  analysis  of  the  data  will  show  that  this  is 
by  no  means  the  case. 

The  occupants  of  each  of  the  three  corners  of  the  “triangle” 
are  marked,  as  is  shown  by  the  maps,  Plates  XXII  to  XXV,  by 
the  predominance  of  a different  physical  type;  in  Hawaii  the 
Palae- Alpine;  in  Easter  Island  the  Proto-Negroid;  in  New  Zea- 
land and  the  Chatham  Islands  the  Caspian.  Let  us  consider 
these  three  groups  in  some  little  detail,  in  the  above  order.  For 
the  people  of  the  Hawaiian  group  we  are  fortunate  in  possessing 
fairly  abundant  cranial  material,1  coming  in  the  main  from  the 
two  extremities  of  the  group,  Hawaii  in  the  south  and  Kauai  in 
the  north.  The  difference  between  the  populations  of  these  two 
islands  is  striking,  for,  although  in  both  brachycephalic  factors 
are  in  the  majority,  the  types  present  are  not  the  same.  In 
Kauai,  at  the  northwest  or  most  remote  end  of  the  group,  the 
Palae- Alpine  type  is  in  the  majority,  followed  in  order  by  the 
Proto-Negroid  and  Caspian;  in  Hawaii,  at  the  southeastern  or 
nearer  end,  the  Alpine  type  is  dominant,  followed  by  the  Palae- 
Alpine,  Proto-Negroid,  and  Caspian.  That  is  to  say,  the  popu- 
lation of  the  island  of  Hawaii  is  equivalent  to  that  in  the  island 
of  Kauai  overlaid  by  a stratum  of  Alpine  peoples.  It  seems  proba- 
ble, therefore,  that  we  may  regard  the  Kauai  population  as  rep- 
resenting an  older  stratum,  once  characteristic  of  the  whole 

1 P.  M.;  Otis,  1876;  Allen,  1898;  Turner,  1884;  Flower,  1879. 


POLYNESIA  AND  MICRONESIA 


379 


group,  and  that  there  has  since  entered  from  the  southward  an 
immigration  of  Alpine  peoples  who  have  come  to  dominate 
Hawaii,  but  whose  influence  has  become  weaker  and  weaker 
toward  the  farther  extremity  of  the  group,  until  in  Kauai  the 
Alpine  factor  appears  only  as  a very  small  minority.  But,  al- 
though the  Alpines  are  actually  predominant  in  the  south,  it  is 
only  by  a rather  narrow  margin,  and  even  there  the  Palae- Alpine 
type  is  very  strongly  represented.  We  shall  see  later  that  the 
Alpine  element  can  be  very  clearly  traced  to  central  Polynesia, 
to  the  southward,  but  whence  did  the  Palae-Alpine  factor  come  ? 
If  we  search  in  other  parts  of  Polynesia,  it  at  once  becomes  ap- 
parent that  almost  nowhere  else  in  the  whole  of  Polynesia,  so  far 
as  our  present  data  go,  does  this  type  appear  except  as  a trace. 
(See  map,  Plate  XXIV.)  To  account  for  its  presence  in  the 
Hawaiian  group  in  such  strength,  we  have  apparently  two  alter- 
natives. We  may  either  assume  that  it  came  from  some  other 
part  of  Polynesia,  but  has  there  almost  wholly  disappeared,  or 
that  it  came  from  elsewhere.  The  only  other  possible  region 
from  which  it  could  have  come  is  Micronesia.  Unfortunately, 
our  data  are  especially  meagre  for  this  area,  and  from  the  Mar- 
shall group  in  particular,  the  nearest  portion  to  the  Hawaiian 
group,  we  have  nothing  at  all.  Yet,  so  far  as  the  materials  go, 
Micronesia  is  as  innocent  of  any  traces  of  Palae-Alpine  peoples 
as  Polynesia  outside  Hawaii.  So  that  here  also,  if  the  people 
passed  through,  they  must  have  been  mere  birds  of  passage  and 
left  no  traces  behind  them.  That  this  Palae-Alpine  factor  in 
Hawaii  must  be  mainly  of  the  normal  type  and  not  the  Negrito 
variety,  seems  clear,1  for  the  short  stature,  dark  skin,  and  frizzly 
hair  of  the  Negrito  seem  to  find  no  counterpart  in  any  Hawaiian 
people  that  we  know.  But  if  it  be  the  normal  Palae-Alpine  type, 
we  are  faced  by  a new  difficulty,  since  this  is  nowhere  else  in 
Oceania  a very  ancient  type,  yet  here  it  forms  the  oldest  stratum 
of  the  population.  This  difficulty  is  more  apparent  than  real, 
however,  since  the  Alpine  type  which  it  precedes  is  the  latest  of 

1 My  previous  views  on  this  question  have,  as  a result  of  increased  materials,  been 
changed.  See  Dixon,  1920. 


380 


OCEANIA 


all,  and  it  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  owing  to  the  re- 
moteness of  Hawaii,  we  need  not  expect  it  to  have  been  reached 
by  any  ancient  and  primitive  peoples.  An  example  showing  a 
rather  mixed  Palas- Alpine  type  is  given  on  Plate  XXIX,  Fig.  i. 
Let  us  leave  this  puzzle,  however,  for  the  moment,  and  turn  to 
the  other  parts  of  the  triangle. 

The  population  of  Easter  Island1  stands  in  sharp  contrast 
to  that  of  the  Hawaiian  group.  Instead  of  a large  majority  of 
brachycephalic  factors,  it  shows  an  overwhelming  predominance 
of  dolichocephalic  types,  the  Proto-Negroid  alone  amounting  to 
about  55  per  cent,  the  minority  being  made  up  of  the  Caspian, 
Proto-Australoid  and  Palae-Alpine  in  nearly  equal  proportions. 
This  predominance  of  the  Proto-Negroid  type  does  not  hold 
for  Easter  Island  alone,  for  it  is  marked,  so  far  as  our  data  go, 
for  the  Society2  and  Cook2  groups  as  well.  For  the  Tuamotu  no 
data  at  all  are  available,  but  from  the  fact  that  the  population 
is  generally  described  as  similar  to  that  of  the  Society  group, 
we  may  tentatively  assume  the  same  predominance  of  the  Proto- 
Negroid  type.  Only  in  the  Marquesas3  does  this  not  hold,  for 
here  the  very  much  mixed  population,  although  by  large  majority 
dolichocephalic,  yet  had  as  its  most  important  single  type  the 
Alpine.  It  may,  therefore,  be  emphasized  that  at  the  extreme 
southeast  corner  of  the  triangle  and  throughout  the  whole  south- 
eastern part  of  central  Polynesia,  except  for  the  Marquesas,  the 
Proto-Negroid  type  is  everywhere  the  dominant  factor,  and  in 
Easter  Island,  at  least,  is  followed  in  importance  by  the  Caspian. 

The  theory  has  long  been  expressed  that  there  was  a “Mela- 
nesian,” i.  e.,  a Negroid  element,  in  the  peoples  of  parts  of  Poly- 
nesia, and  this  has  been  generally  explained  as  having  been 
absorbed  by  the  Polynesian  ancestors  during  their  passage 
through  Melanesia.  The  alternative  theory  that  a pre-Poly- 
nesian stratum  of  “Melanesian”  (i.  e.,  Negroid)  characteristics 
was  widely  spread  throughout  Polynesia  has  been  decried.  The 
analysis  of  the  data  seems,  however,  to  my  mind,  to  leave  no  op- 


1 Jablonowski,  1902;  Volz,  1894-95. 
8 von  Luschan,  op.  cit. 


2 von  Luschan,  1907. 


POLYNESIA  AND  MICRONESIA 


381 


tion  but  to  accept  this  outlawed  view,  for  it  is  difficult  to  see  how 
so  large  a proportion  of  “ Melanesian”  factors  (amounting  to 
nearly  70  per  cent)  could  have  been  brought  to  far-off  Easter 
Island  as  the  result  merely  of  the  “ absorption”  of  these  elements 
in  transit. 

We  may  now  turn  to  the  third  or  southwestern  corner  of  the 
triangle,  occupied  by  New  Zealand1  and  the  Chatham  Islands.2 
Traditionally  the  Maori,  as  the  people  of  New  Zealand  are  known, 
are  made  up  of  two  groups  of  people,  an  older  aboriginal  stratum 
and  a later,  derived  from  the  immigrants  who  in  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries  came  to  New  Zealand  from  the  Society 
and  Cook  groups.  The  Moriori  of  the  Chatham  Islands,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  emigrants  from  New  Zealand  a century  or  so 
prior  to  the  period  which  brought  these  conquerors  and  settlers 
from  the  east.  At  the  time  of  the  European  discovery  of  New 
Zealand  the  descendants  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
tury immigrants  formed  the  great  bulk  of  the  population,  espe- 
cially in  the  North  Island,  the  older  aboriginal  stock  having  been 
almost  wholly  destroyed  or  absorbed. 

We  are  fortunate  in  possessing  a considerable  body  of  cranial 
material  from  this  whole  region.  Turning  our  attention  first  to 
New  Zealand,  it  appears  that,  if  we  take  all  the  crania  together 
in  a single  series,  the  Maori  are  a very  much  mixed  people,  with 
a large  majority  of  dolichocephalic  factors.  The  Caspian  type 
is  relatively  the  most  important  single  type  present,  followed  in 
order  by  the  Pro  to- Australoid,  Proto-Negroid,  and  Alpine.  The 
dominant  type  thus,  in  this  corner  of  the  triangle,  differs  from 
that  in  each  of  the  others.  If  the  material  from  New  Zealand 
instead  of  being  treated  as  a whole  is  divided  into  three  groups 
made  up  of  the  crania  coming  respectively  from  the  northern 
peninsula  of  the  North  Island,  the  remainder  of  the  North  Island, 
and  the  South  Island  (a  division  based  on  certain  cultural  and 
historical  bases),  significant  local  variations  appear.  Thus  the 


1 Flower,  1879;  Mollison,  1908-09;  Scott,  1893;  Turner,  1884. 

2 Duckworth,  1900  b;  Flower,  op.  cit.;  Poll,  1902;  Scott,  op.  cit.;  Thomson, ' 
I9I5- 


• J ■< 


382 


OCEANIA 


proportion  of  dolichocephalic  factors  decreases  from  north  to 
south  as  follows:  northern  peninsula  75  per  cent,  rest  of  North 
Island  65  per  cent,  South  Island  55  per  cent.  The  proportion 
of  the  Alpine  type,  on  the  contrary,  increases;  northern  peninsula 
6 per  cent,  rest  of  North  Island  23  per  cent,  South  Island  31  per 
cent;  and  whereas,  in  the  whole  of  the  North  Island  the  Caspian 
is  the  most  important  single  type  present,  in  the  South  Island 
this  position  is  held  by  the  Alpine.  Lastly,  in  the  North  Island 
the  “Melanesian”  elements  (i.  e.  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- 
Australoid)  are  much  stronger  than  in  the  south.  Taking  these 
facts  into  consideration  with  the  traditional  history,  it  would 
appear  that  if  we  regard  the  South  Island  population  as  more 
nearly  representing  the  older,  aboriginal  inhabitants  (since  it 
occupies  relatively  the  more  remote  position),  the  new  factors 
brought  by  the  fourteenth-century  immigrants  must  have  been 
largely  dolichocephalic  and,  in  the  main,  of  Caspian  and  Proto- 
Negroid  types — precisely  those  which  were  actually  of  greatest 
importance  throughout  southeastern  Polynesia,  whence  the  in- 
vaders came.  It  would  also  follow  that  if  the  South  Island 
roughly  represents  the  general  character  of  the  population  prior 
to  the  arrival  of  the  immigrants,  this  older,  aboriginal  stratum 
may  be  presumed  to  have  been  primarily  brachy cephalic,  with 
the  Alpine  type  predominant,  and  to  have  had  a much  smaller 
representation  of  the  “Melanesian”  types. 

Now  the  emigrants  from  New  Zealand  who  colonized  the 
Chatham  Islands  traditionally  left  a century  or  two  prior  to  the 
period  of  the  coming  of  the  eastern  conquerors;  they  should, 
therefore,  preserve  for  us,  even  better  than  the  population  of  the 
South  Island  of  New  Zealand,  a sample  of  this  ancient  aboriginal 
stratum.  If  we  turn  now  to  the  data,  we  find  that  our  anticipa- 
tions as  to  what  the  character  of  that  older  population  must 
have  been  are  amply  confirmed.  For  the  Moriori  show  a slight 
majority  of  brachycephalic  factors,  the  Alpine  is  very  definitely 
the  dominant  type,  and  the  proportion  of  the  Proto-Negroid 
and  Proto-Australoid  types  is  very  materially  decreased.  Prior 
to  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  then,  we  may  regard 


POLYNESIA  AND  MICRONESIA 


383 


the  population  of  New  Zealand  as  having  been  primarily  Alpine, 
the  Caspian  and  associated  Mediterranean  types  being  of  secon- 
dary importance,  while  the  “Melanesian”  factors  were  relatively 
unimportant.  The  Marquesan  given  on  Plate  XXIX,  Fig.  2, 
shows  an  example  of  this  Caspian  type. 

We  are  now  finally  in  a position  to  consider  the  character  of 
the  population  of  western  Polynesia,  of  Samoa,  Tonga,  and  the 
Ellice  groups.1  Through  these  and  the  neighboring  small  groups 
and  scattered  islands  which  connect  Polynesia  with  Melanesia 
and  Micronesia,  we  must  assume  that  the  great  bulk  of  all  the 
immigrants,  who  at  various  times  came  into  Polynesia,  passed. 
These  islands  stand  in  the  gateway  and  must  have  borne  the 
brunt  of  each  succeeding  immigrant  drift,  and  therefore  the  pre- 
vailing character  of  their  present  population  should  be  an  in- 
dication of  that  of  the  last  migration,  since  this  must  largely 
have  swept  away  or  absorbed  the  earlier  occupants.  Unfortu- 
nately, for  this  very  important  area  we  possess  next  to  nothing 
in  the  way  of  cranial  material,  and,  although  there  have  recently 
been  made  extensive  measurements  on  the  living  in  Samoa2  and 
Tonga,3  no  individual  data  have  been  published.  The  few  crania 
which  we  possess  are,  however,  very  significant,  in  that  brachy- 
cephalic  factors  are  in  overwhelming  majority,  the  Alpine  type 
alone  amounting  to  85  per  cent.  Sullivan’s  measurements  of 
living  Samoans  in  general  bear  out  these  indications,  brachy- 
cephalic  factors  amounting  to  over  75  per  cent  and  leptorrhine 
elements  outnumbering  the  platyrrhine  by  50  per  cent.  Taking 
all  the  information  available,  therefore,  it  seems  to  be  clear  that 
the  dominant  factor  in  the  population  of  this  western  gateway 
of  Polynesia  is  the  Alpine  type,  and  that  with  it  go  substantial 
minorities  of  other  types,  which  cannot,  however,  be  determined. 
In  other  words,  the  peoples  of  western  Polynesia  are  in  general 
comparable  with  the  population  which,  by  elimination,  we  have 
inferred  was  characteristic  of  New  Zealand  prior  to  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries.  An  example  from  Samoa  of  this  west- 
ern Polynesian  type  is  given  on  Plate  XXIX,  Fig.  3. 

1 Flower,  op.  cit.;  Krause,  R.,  1881,  2 Sullivan,  1921.  ’Sullivan,  1922. 


384 


OCEANIA 


Before  attempting  a brief  sketch  of  the  racial  history  of  the 
whole  of  Polynesia,  we  must  first  consider  some  of  the  other  physi- 
cal characteristics  of  the  population.  In  stature,  all  the  Poly- 
nesian peoples  are  tall,  the  average  being  given  as  173  cm.,  vary- 
ing for  the  different  groups  from  168  cm.  in  the  case  of  the  Maori 
to  174  cm.  in  the  Marquesas.  In  general,  thus,  the  Polynesians 
rank  with  the  tallest  peoples  in  the  world.  In  skin  color  the  pre- 
vailing tone  is  a light  brown,  although  considerable  local  and  in- 
dividual variations  exist,  and  strikingly  light  as  well  as  quite 
dark  colored  individuals  are  occasionally  reported.  Accurate 
data  on  this  point,  however,  enabling  us  to  plot  the  variations, 
do  not  exist.  The  hair  is  in  general  wavy,  but  straight  as  well 
as  strongly  curly  and  even  frizzly  forms  occur  in  individuals 
here  and  there. 

The  fundamental  facts  upon  which  the  explanation  of  the 
racial  history  of  Polynesia  must  rest  are:  (1)  The  dominant  posi- 
tion held  by  the  Palae- Alpine  type  in  the  Hawaiian  group  at  the 
northern  corner  of  the  triangle;  (2)  the  concentration  of  the 
Proto-Negroid  type  in  Easter  Island  and  the  whole  southeastern 
portion  of  the  area;  and  (3)  the  preponderance  of  the  Alpine  type 
at  the  present  time  in  western  Polynesia  and  among  the  popula- 
tion of  New  Zealand  at  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  triangle 
prior  to  the  fourteenth  century.  The  first  people  to  enter  and 
settle  in  Polynesia  were,  I believe,  a mixed  “Melanesian”  folk, 
primarily  dolichocephalic,  a blend  of  the  Proto-Negroid  and 
Proto-Australoid,  with  a dash  of  the  Caspian  type.  This  mixed 
people  had  developed  in  Melanesia.  As  these  dark-skinned, 
curly  or  wavy  haired  people  gradually  worked  their  way  east- 
ward they  had  gained,  little  by  little,  in  skill  of  navigation  and 
ability  to  construct  seaworthy  canoes;  the  sea  distances  to  be 
crossed  had  increased  and  they  had  met  the  need.  By  the  time 
that  they  reached  Fiji  and  the  small  islands  on  the  eastern  verge 
of  Melanesia  they  were  already  something  of  a maritime  people. 
Working  their  way  farther,  to  Samoa  and  Tonga,  they  passed 
by  way  of  the  Cook,  Society,  and  Tuamotu  groups  far  to  the 
eastward,  and  by  some  lucky  chance  actually  reached  Easter 


PLATE  XXIX. 


•C. 

iS 


■i 


POLYNESIA  AND  MICRONESIA 


385 


Island.  From  the  Tuamotus  they  penetrated  northward  to  the 
Marquesas,  but  north  of  the  equator  they  did  not  go,  and  never 
reached  Hawaii.  Neither,  in  all  probability,  did  they  make  the 
long  southern  voyage  to  New  Zealand,  so  that  the  first  stage  of 
the  discovery  and  colonization  of  Polynesia  left  the  northern  and 
southwestern  corners  of  the  triangle  still  empty. 

After  these  early  “Melanesian”  wanderers  had  been  in  occu- 
pation of  the  lands  they  had  discovered  for  some  time,  a new 
period  of  migration  set  in,  bringing  to  the  western  margin  of 
Polynesia  a new  group  of  mixed  peoples  of  quite  a different  char- 
acter. These  newcomers,  who  were  probably  relatively  few  in 
numbers,  came  down  from  the  north  by  way  of  the  Ellice  and 
Gilbert  groups  rather  than  from  the  west  by  way  of  Melanesia. 
They  were,  in  the  main,  of  Caspian  type,  but  with  minorities  of 
other  dolichocephalic  forms.  Spreading  first  to  Samoa  and  Tonga, 
they  followed  the  trail  of  the  earlier  migrants  eastward,  one  little 
group  again  making  its  way  as  far  as  Easter  Island.  Culturally 
they  were  more  advanced  than  their  predecessors,  and  may  have 
been  the  bringers  of  the  art  of  stone  construction,  the  remains 
of  which  in  the  form  of  buildings,  terraced  pyramidal  platforms, 
and  huge  monolithic  statues  we  find  in  many  of  the  islands  to 
which  they  came.  Like  their  predecessors  they  did  not,  how- 
ever, win  north  to  Hawaii  or  south  to  New  Zealand 

The  third  and  last  period  of  migration  which  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  peopling  of  Polynesia,  brought  again  a new 
type.  This  last  movement,  which  was  probably  as  late  as  the 
early  part  of  the  Christian  era  was  in  the  main  Alpine  in  type, 
and  came  perhaps  (?),  like  the  second,  by  way  of  Micronesia. 
These  latest  comers  were  the  “ancestors,”  whose  long  migrations 
are  yet  dimly  remembered  by  the  Polynesian  people.  It  is  cur- 
rent theory  that  these  “Polynesian  ancestors”  came  from  In- 
donesia through  Melanesia.  We  have  seen,  however,  in  the 
previous  chapter  that,  so  far  as  our  present  data  go,  there  is  little 
certain  evidence  of  their  passage,  except  perhaps  in  New  Ireland 
and  the  central  Solomons.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  not  a 
little  reason  to  believe  that  a stream  of  Alpine  peoples  came  into 


386 


OCEANIA 


and  through  Micronesia.  However  that  may  be,  the  immigrants 
poured  into  western  Polynesia,  and  thence  moved  eastward, 
largely  perhaps  by  a more  northerly  route  than  their  prede- 
cessors, going  by  way  of  the  smaller  islets  (Manihiki,  Tongareva, 
etc.)  to  the  Marquesas.  In  the  Cook,  Society,  and  Tuamotus, 
at  any  rate,  they  do  not  seem  to  have  been  numerous  enough 
to  form  the  dominating  element.  These  latest  comers  were 
more  daring  and  experienced  than  the  earlier,  and  from  Tonga 
they  quested  southward  until  they  reached  New  Zealand,  bring- 
ing with  them,  as  a result  of  fusion  with  the  older  western  Poly- 
nesian population,  considerable  Caspian  and  “Melanesian”  ele- 
ments. Thus,  New  Zealand  received  its  first  inhabitants,  some 
of  whom  later  spread  to  the  Chatham  Islands;  later,  in  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries,  this  New  Zealand  population 
was  profoundly  modified  by  the  conquerors  who  came  from  the 
eastward,  bringing  primarily  dolichocephalic  factors. 

But  not  only  did  these  Alpine  immigrants  into  the  island 
paradise  of  the  South  Seas  seek  for  new  lands  to  the  southward, 
they  explored  also  northward  and,  by  way  of  the  scattered  islets 
lying  north  of  the  Marquesas  and  central  Polynesia,  such  as 
Malden,  Christmas,  and  Fanning  Islands  (which,  although  un- 
inhabited when  discovered,  nevertheless  showed  evidence  of  hav- 
ing once  been  occupied),  reached  Hawaii.  But  did  they  find  it 
empty?  By  the  theory  here  suggested  none  of  the  earlier  peoples 
who  had  penetrated  into  Polynesia  had  ever  wandered  so  far  to 
the  north;  how,  then,  could  the  group  have  been  otherwise  than 
vacant  ? It  may  be  remembered,  however,  that  at  the  beginning 
of  this  chapter,  in  discussing  the  character  of  the  population  of 
the  Hawaiian  group,  we  found  that  the  element  which  was  domi- 
nant in  the  more  remote  northwestern  end  of  the  chain,  and  very 
strongly  represented  even  at  the  southeastern  terminus  of  the 
group,  was  the  Palae-Alpine,  a type  which  is  present,  except  in 
Easter  Island,  as  little  more  than  a trace  throughout  all  the  rest 
of  Polynesia.  We  were,  moreover,  left  in  rather  a dilemma  to 
explain  its  presence.  How  completely  this  type  is  confined  to 
the  Hawaiian  group  may  be  realized  when  it  is  stated  that  if 


POLYNESIA  AND  MICRONESIA 


387 


we  consider  only  the  crania  which  are  purely  of  the  Palae-Alpine 
type,  and  disregard  those  in  which  it  appears  only  as  a factor, 
in  the  whole  series  of  crania  from  the  rest  of  Polynesia  such 
skulls  number  slightly  over  i per  cent  of  the  total,  whereas  in 
the  Hawaiian  group  they  comprise  20  per  cent  of  the  series;  in 
the  females  from  Kauai  alone  they  are  over  70  per  cent ! As 
the  distribution  of  this  Palae-Alpine  type  in  the  Hawaiian  group, 
culminating  at  the  remote  northwestern  extremity,  leads  to  the 
conclusion  that  this  must  have  characterized  the  population  prior 
to  the  invasion  of  the  Alpines  from  the  south,  the  problem  of  ac- 
counting for  their  origin  seems  for  the  present  practically  in- 
soluble. We  must  await  archaeological  data  from  the  Hawaiian 
group  and  also  from  Micronesia,  for  I cannot  but  think  that  the 
solution  of  the  mystery  may  be  found  there,  although  our  present 
meagre  information  gives  no  intimation  of  the  presence  of  any 
people  of  Palae-Alpine  type  in  the  region  to-day. 

If  this  interpretation  of  the  facts  as  set  forth  here  is  correct, 
we  have  to  recognize  in  the  present  Polynesian  population  not 
a uniform  but  a complex  people,  whose  heritage  goes  back  to  the 
older  as  well  as  the  later  strata  of  Asiatic  peoples.  Many  writers 
have  enlarged  upon  an  elusive  “Caucasic”  element  in  the  Poly- 
nesian area,  and  this  we  have  found  in  the  Caspian-Mediter- 
ranean  factor  present  to-day  most  strongly  probably  in  the  Maori 
of  New  Zealand.  Just  when  and  by  what  route  this  stray  branch 
of  Eur-Asiatic  blood  made  its  way  into  the  South  Seas  is  not, 
perhaps,  wholly  certain.  That  at  a very  early  date,  in  all  proba- 
bility in  Neolithic  times,  it  had  reached  the  eastern  borderlands 
of  Asia  has  been  suggested  in  a previous  section  of  this  book; 
that  later  it  played  some  part  in  the  complex  racial  history  of 
Indonesia  we  have  also  seen;  its  wandering  still  farther  eastward 
may  perhaps  come  down  to  what  are,  in  the  racial  history  of  the 
world  at  large,  comparatively  modern  times. 


388 


OCEANIA 


II.  Micronesia 

The  island  chains  of  Micronesia,  comprising  the  Pelew, 
Marianne,  Caroline,  Marshall,  and  Gilbert  groups  have  played 
in  all  probability  a rather  important  part  in  the  racial  history 
of  Oceania,  but  it  is  a part  which,  for  lack  of  data,  we  can  as  yet 
but  vaguely  understand.  Its  importance  lies  in  the  way  in  which 
they  link  Polynesia  with  Indonesia,  affording  as  it  were  a by-pass 
around  the  whole  Melanesian  region,  and  also  link  Polynesia 
through  the  Marianne  and  Bonin  Islands,  with  Japan  and  the 
central  portion  of  the  eastern  Asiatic  coast. 

As  the  name  Micronesia  implies,  these  islands  are  all  small, 
and,  although  the  western  groups  (Pelew,  Marianne,  Caroline) 
have  many  more  or  less  rugged  and  volcanic  islands,  the  Mar- 
shall and  Gilbert  groups  in  the  east  and  south  are  wholly  com- 
posed of  low  coral  atolls.  Linguistically,  the  occupants  of  all 
these  islands  speak  related  languages,  which  are  affiliated  with 
the  Melanesian  and  Polynesian,  and  the  Malayan  or  Indonesian 
languages. 

In  view  of  the  significance  of  Micronesia  in  the  history  of 
the  Oceanic  area,  it  is  disappointing  to  find  that  as  yet  we  have 
little  or  no  data  of  value  regarding  the  physical  characteristics 
of  the  people.  From  the  very  scanty  material,1  however,  some 
indications  of  value  may  be  gleaned. 

In  the  first  place,  leaving  out  of  account  the  Marshall  group 
for  which  no  material,  so  far  as  I know,  exists,  there  appears  to 
be  a rather  regular  and  gradual  change  in  the  Micronesian  region 
from  west  to  east  and  south,  in  that,  in  the  Pelew  group  and  Yap, 
brachycephalic  factors  are  in  very  large  majority,  whereas,  passing 
eastward  through  the  Carolines  to  Ponape,  the  balance  swings 
to  a preponderance  of  dolichocephalic  factors,  reaching  its  maxi- 
mum in  the  Gilbert  group  with  a proportion  of  70  to  75  per  cent. 
Since  Krause  does  not  give  any  nasal  measurements,  the  only 
indication  as  to  the  types  present  in  the  Carolines  comes  from 
the  small  series  of  crania  from  Ruk  given  by  Virchow.  From 

1 Virchow,  1881;  Krause,  1881, 


POLYNESIA  AND  MICRONESIA 


389 


these  it  would  appear  that  the  Proto-Negroid  type  was  here  in 
the  majority,  the  Palae-Alpine  being  secondary  and  the  Caspian- 
Mediterranean  elements  present  as  a considerable  minority. 
In  the  Gilbert  group  Virchow’s  small  series  shows  that  the  Cas- 
pian type  is  strongly  dominant,  the  Alpine  type  occupying  sec- 
ond place,  while  the  Negroid  or  “Melanesian”  factors  drop  to  a 
mere  trace.  The  longer,  incomplete  series  of  Krause,  indicates 
a somewhat  larger  proportion  of  brachycephalic  factors.  To  the 
foregoing  we  may  add  the  fact  that  in  stature  the  Micronesian 
population  varies  in  passing  from  west  to  east,  being  of  medium 
stature  or  slightly  under  in  the  extreme  west,  and  growing  taller 
eastward  and  southward  until  in  the  Gilbert  group  the  average 
reaches  that  general  for  Polynesia,  i.  e.,  173  cm.  Further,  that 
in  skin  color  and  character  of  the  hair  there  are  also  great  differ- 
ences, such  that  while  in  the  Gilberts  the  skin  color  is  generally 
comparable  to  the  average  in  Polynesia,  the  hair  being  wavy  or 
straight,  in  the  Caroline  group  there  is  great  variety,  some  islands 
or  parts  of  islands  or  individuals  being  very  dark-skinned  with 
frizzly  hair,  while  others  are  light-skinned  with  wavy  or  straight 
hair.  The  portrait  given  on  Plate  XXIX,  Fig.  4,  shows  what  is 
evidently  a much  mixed  type. 

Even  from  this  meagre  information  it  seems  clear  that  the 
Micronesian  area  contains  a very  much  mixed  population,  and 
considerable  differences  in  culture  confirm  the  belief  that  the 
racial  history  of  the  area  has  been  complex.  With  our  present 
data  it  is  possible  to  do  little  more  than  speculate  as  to  what 
this  history  may  have  been,  but  I should  like  to  emphasize  three 
points.  First,  that  the  surprising  importance  of  the  Caspian- 
Mediterranean  types  in  the  Gilbert  group  is,  although  puzzling, 
extremely  significant,  as  it  must  indicate  the  passage  through 
Micronesia  of  a group  of  people  in  whom  this  type  was  of  great 
importance.  The  striking  part  which  these  peoples  evidently 
played  in  Polynesia  has  already  been  discussed;  but  whence 
can  they  have  come  ? There  would  appear  to  be  but  two  alterna- 
tives: either  we  may  suppose  them  to  have  come  from  Indo- 
China  by  way  of  Indonesia,  into  which,  as  we  have  seen,  a stream 


390 


OCEANIA 


of  peoples  of  this  type  must  have  passed;  or  we  might  derive  them 
from  Japan  by  way  of  the  Bonin  Islands  and  the  Mariannes. 
The  latter  is  certainly  possible,  and  peoples  of  this  type  were 
present  in  Japan  in  late  Neolithic  times,  but,  all  things  consid- 
ered, it  is  probably  safer  at  present  to  regard  them  as  coming 
from  Indonesia. 

The  second  point  is  that  the  “Melanesian”  or  Negroid  fac- 
tors seem  to  be  confined  rather  sharply  to  the  Caroline  group, 
and  may  possibly  have  been  derived  in  relatively  recent  times  by 
way  of  Greenwich,  Nukuoro,  and  other  islands  from  Melanesia 
to  the  southward.  The  vague  traditions  of  an  influx  and  con- 
quest of  some  of  the  Carolines  by  savage  black  men  coming 
from  the  south,  would  seem  to  point  in  this  direction;  while  the 
remarkably  localized  character  of  the  Negroid  population,  and 
the  fact  that  it  still  retains  its  identity  apart  from  the  rest  of 
the  people,  may  be  taken  to  confirm  its  recent  arrival.  The 
greater  frequency  of  the  Caspian  type  among  the  female  por- 
tion of  the  population  would  also  perhaps  tend  to  suggest  that 
this  was  an  older  type  in  the  group  than  the  Negroid. 

Lastly,  the  dominance  of  the  Alpine  type  in  the  western  part 
of  the  whole  area  may  perhaps  be  taken  as  evidence  that  a part 
of  the  stream  of  peoples  of  this  type,  which  came  into  Polynesia 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  passed  through  the 
Micronesian  island  chain. 


BOOK  V 

NORTH  AMERICA 


INTRODUCTION 


The  racial  history  of  the  New  World  presents  some  of  the 
most  interesting  and  at  the  same  time  most  perplexing  of  prob- 
lems. When  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  and  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  centuries  America  became  known  to  Europeans, 
it  was  found  to  be  occupied  by  peoples  in  very  different  stages 
of  culture,  ranging  from  the  simplest  nomad,  hunting  and  fisher 
folk  to  highly  cultured,  sedentary  and  agricultural  peoples,  skilled 
in  architecture,  textiles,  and  metallurgy,  and  living  under  elabo- 
rately organized  governmental  systems.  Yet,  in  spite  of  the 
wide  variation  in  cultural  status  and  an  amazing  diversity  in 
language,  the  American  Indians  presented  less  striking  differences 
in  physical  type  than  were  to  be  found  among  the  peoples  of 
the  Old  World.  In  America  there  were  no  such  differences  in 
skin  color,  in  character  and  color  of  the  hair  or  eyes  as  occurred 
in  Africa,  Asia  or  the  islands  of  the  Pacific ; so  that  quite  naturally 
the  American  Indians  came  to  be  considered  as  an  essentially 
homogeneous  people. 

With  the  beginning,  however,  of  the  scientific  study  of  racial 
characters,  the  fact  that  there  were  after  all  very  wide  variations 
in  physical  type  became  apparent,  and  various  suggestions  in 
regard  to  the  number  of  these  types  and  their  origin  were  put 
forward  from  time  to  time.  Yet  the  older  belief  in  the  unity  of 
the  Indian  held  its  ground  vigorously,  and,  fortified  by  a mass 
of  evidence  and  argument,  still  remains  that  held  by  many  of 
the  foremost  authorities.  In  view  of  the  controversial  character 
of  this  fundamental  question,  a brief  discussion  of  the  two  op- 
posed theories  is  desirable  before  we  undertake  the  presentation 
and  interpretation  of  the  facts  themselves. 

Although  at  variance  in  regard  to  the  unity  of  the  popula- 
tion, the  adherents  of  each  of  the  two  theories  are,  to-day,  sub- 
stantially in  accord  in  declaring  that  the  origin  of  the  American 
Indian  is  undoubtedly  to  be  sought  in  Asia;  and  that  the  New 

393 


394 


NORTH  AMERICA 


World  was  originally  peopled  by  immigrants  who  reached  the 
northern  continent  at  its  northwestern  extremity  and  spread 
thence  by  degrees  to  the  extreme  tip  of  South  America.  For 
those  who  believe  in  the  homogeneity  of  the  Indian,  the  initial 
immigration,  however  prolonged,  was  the  only  one;  or,  if  they 
admit  the  possibility  of  more  than  a single  period  of  movement, 
they  appear  to  assume  that  the  Asiatic  reservoir,  from  whence 
the  immigrants  were  derived,  retained  its  racial  character  quite 
unchanged.  From  this  point  of  view  the  American  Indian  is 
essentially  Mongoloid,  using  this  term  in  its  ordinary  sense,  and 
the  divergences  from  this  form,  as  it  is  found  in  northern  Asia 
to-day,  are  regarded  merely  as  normal  variations.  The  differ- 
ences between  tribe  and  tribe  are  considered  as,  on  the  whole, 
of  quite  random  distribution,  and  as  such  not  particularly  sig- 
nificant. The  very  obvious  concentration  of  dolichocephalic 
types  in  the  northeast  of  the  northern  continent,  in  parts  of  Brazil, 
and  in  the  tip  of  South  America  are,  to  be  sure,  admitted,  but  they 
are  explained  as  the  results  of  local  variation  in  comparative  iso- 
lation rather  than  as  an  indication  of  the  presence  of  radically 
different  racial  types. 

Now,  in  spite  of  the  weight  of  authority  which  is  ranged  on 
the  side  of  this  belief  in  the  unity  of  the  Indian,  I believe  that  it 
can  be  shown,  by  the  method  of  analysis  here  adopted,  that  the 
theory  of  the  homogeneity  of  the  American  Indian  must  be  dis- 
carded. For  not  only  does  it  wholly  fail  to  account  for  certain 
facts  of  geographic  distribution  which  have  been  strangely  over- 
looked, but  it  breaks  down  entirely  when  historical  and  chron- 
ological factors  are  taken  into  consideration.  When,  moreover, 
the  view  is  extended  to  the  Asiatic  continent,  from  whence  the 
population  of  the  New  World  must  have  been  derived,  further 
difficulties  in  the  path  of  the  unitary  theory  become  apparent. 
For  we  have  much  evidence  which  tends  to  show  that,  at  the 
period  when  the  ancestors  of  the  American  Indian  were  leaving 
the  Asiatic  continent  for  the  New  World,  the  physical  types 
found  in  that  portion  whence  they  must  have  come  were  not 
only  quite  different  from  what  we  find  there  to-day,  but  under- 


INTRODUCTION 


395 


went  radical  changes  from  time  to  time,  so  that,  if  the  migration 
into  America  was  spread  over  any  considerable  period,  the  immi- 
grants must  have  been  far  from  uniform. 

Can  a reasonable  and  concrete  theory  of  the  racial  history 
of  North  America,  built  on  the  assumption  that  a variety  of  racial 
types  are  present,  be  devised  which  shall  accord  with  the  facts? 
I believe  that  it  can,  and  that  if  it  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  that 
the  theory  is,  because  of  the  great  incompleteness  of  the  data, 
necessarily  only  tentative,  it  is  worth  the  attempt  if  it  serves  to 
reduce  to  some  sort  of  order  the  existing  rather  chaotic  situation. 

Before  outlining  this  theory,  however,  attention  must  first 
be  called  to  certain  of  the  main  geographical  features  which  have 
played  a large  part  in  the  racial  history  of  the  North  American 
aborigines.  The  factor  of  first  importance  is  the  division  of  the 
continent  into  two  portions  by  the  great  chain  which,  as  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  extends  almost  unbroken  from  northern  Alaska 
southward  to  the  Mexican  line  and  thence,  in  the  ranges  border- 
ing the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  onward  to  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec. 
The  area  west  of  this  dividing  range  falls  into  two  parts,  divided 
roughly  by  the  east  and  west  course  of  the  Columbia  River.  That 
to  the  north  is  a rugged,  mountainous  region,  in  the  main  forested 
and  rich  in  fish  and  game;  that  to  the  south  is  a series  of  plateaus 
or  closed  basins,  in  part  arid  and  semi-arid,  and  economically 
inferior  to  the  country  to  the  north.  Along  its  western  border, 
however,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  Cascade  and  Sierra  Nevada 
ranges,  lie  the  richly  favored  valleys  of  western  Oregon  and  Cali- 
fornia. The  eastern  portion  of  the  continent  likewise  falls  into 
two  divisions.  Limited  on  the  west  by  the  Rocky  Mountain 
range  and  on  the  east  by  Hudson  Bay,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the 
Mississippi  River,  and  extending  from  the  Arctic  coast  south- 
ward to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  a vast,  unbroken  stretch  of  plains, 
in  the  main  unforested,  and  providing  in  the  buffalo,  abundant 
throughout  its  whole  central  portion,  an  ideal  food-supply  for 
a primitive  folk.  East  of  this  region  of  the  Plains  lies  the  last 
of  the  four  main  divisions,  the  broad  valleys  and  rolling  hills  of 
the  eastern  woodlands. 


396 


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Returning  now  to  our  problem,  we  may  begin  by  the  assump- 
tion (i)  that  the  peopling  of  the  continent  began  at  an  early  date, 
a time  synchronous  perhaps  with  the  end  of  the  Palaeolithic  period 
in  Europe;  (2)  that  all  significant  immigration  took  place  from 
northeastern  Asia  by  way  of  Bering  Strait,  and  (3)  that,  as  a 
result  of  wide  movements  of  peoples  in  the  Eur-Asiatic  continent, 
the  primary  immigration  into  North  America  was  followed  by 
other  drifts,  each  of  which  brought  a combination  of  racial  ele- 
ments different  from  the  preceding,  depending  upon  the  factors 
present  at  the  time  in  that  portion  of  Asia  whence  the  migratory 
peoples  came. 

To  the  first  assumption  objection  will  at  once  be  made  by 
the  very  active  school  which  stoutly  denies  the  validity  of  all 
evidence  tending  to  indicate  the  early  presence  of  man  in  America. 
This  is  not  the  place  to  argue  the  point,  and  it  will  only  be  sub- 
mitted that,  although  no  single  piece  of  evidence  has  yet  come  to 
light  in  proof  of  early  man  in  America,  comparable  in  certainty 
with  that  available  for  Europe,  yet  the  cumulative  value  of  the 
sum  of  our  knowledge  of  man  and  his  culture  in  the  New  World 
is  such  as  almost  to  force  us,  even  in  the  absence  of  absolute 
proof,  to  assume  the  fact.  Without  this  the  undisputed  data 
of  archaeology,  culture,  and  language  would  be  practically  in- 
explicable. 

The  second  assumption,  that  all  significant  immigration  came 
into  North  America  by  way  of  Bering  Strait,  will  probably  meet 
with  little  objection,  since  the  consensus  of  opinion  of  all  the  best 
students  is  overwhelmingly  in  its  favor.  The  last  postulate, 
that  we  must  allow  for  more  than  one  immigrant  wave  and  that 
these  were  of  varying  racial  composition,  is  one  whose  probability, 
I had  almost  said  necessity,  it  would  seem  difficult  to  deny.  In 
every  other  portion  of  the  world,  wave  after  wave,  pulse  after 
pulse  of  migration  has  occurred;  why  alone  in  the  case  of  the 
New  World  should  such  an  event  have  taken  place  but  once? 
And  if  but  once,  we  must  either  assume  that  this  single  wave 
brought  with  it  examples  of  every  type  known  throughout  the 
world,  as  types  are  understood  in  the  present  study,  or  else  that 


INTRODUCTION 


397 


from  one  single  form  every  known  extreme  of  modification  of 
the  cranial  criteria  adopted  has  arisen  independently  and  dis- 
tributed itself  geographically  in  a very  systematic  and  peculiar 
fashion.  The  difficulties  which  must  be  met,  if  we  accept  the 
assumption  of  multiple  immigrant  types,  are,  it  may  be  frankly 
admitted,  many;  but  those  encountered  by  denying  it  seem  both 
greater  and  more  numerous. 

Accepting,  then,  that  beginning  in  very  early  times  a series 
of  immigrant  waves  of  varying  racial  composition  and  character 
came  into  North  America  by  way  of  Bering  Strait,  we  may  pro- 
ceed to  determine  their  probable  sequence  and  specific  characters. 

First,  however,  we  may  call  attention  to  certain  further  geo- 
graphical factors  of  great  importance  in  attempting  to  mark  out 
the  probable  lines  of  migration  by  which  any  immigrant  peoples 
reaching  the  American  continent  from  across  Bering  Strait  must 
have  spread.  If,  as  is  most  likely,  the  invaders  were  to  land  upon 
American  soil  at  some  point  on  Seward  peninsula,  they  might 
thereafter  either  attempt  to  penetrate  into  the  interior  of  the 
country  or  follow  the  shore.  In  the  former  case,  they  would, 
almost  of  necessity,  be  led  by  the  topography  to  follow  up  the 
valleys  of  the  Yukon  or  Tanana.  Progress  southward  from  the 
upper  courses  of  either  of  these  streams  lies  through  difficult 
mountain  country,  but  eastward  there  are  various  large  tribu- 
taries by  which  ways  across  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Mac- 
kenzie basin  and  the  Plains  might  be  found;  and,  once  in  the 
Plains,  their  spread  southward  would  be  easy  and  rapid.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  immigrants  followed  the  coast,  we  again 
have  two  alternatives.  Southward  as  far  as  the  Alaska  peninsula 
any  attempt  to  turn  inland  would  still  lead  to  the  valley  of  the 
Yukon,  while  once  past  this  point  the  height  and  difficulty  of 
the  mountains,  or  their  breadth,  would  tend  to  confine  further 
advance  to  the  coastal  belt.  All  known  or  traditional  move- 
ments here,  at  least  as  far  as  Puget  Sound,  have  been  either 
littoral  or  from  the  interior  toward  the  coast.  If  the  immigrant 
group  turned  northward  from  Bering  Strait,  the  Endicott  Range 
would  tend  to  bar  penetration  from  the  Arctic  coast,  but  once 


398 


NORTH  AMERICA 


the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  was  reached,  the  way  to  the  south- 
land and  the  Plains  lay  open. 

Since,  therefore,  any  direct  attempt  to  penetrate  the  interior 
or  any  movement  northward  along  the  Alaska  coast  would  tend 
to  lead  an  immigrant  group  ultimately  into  the  plains  area  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  while  a southward  movement  along  the 
coast  had  for  some  hundreds  of  miles  at  least  an  even  chance  of 
leading  in  the  end  in  the  same  direction,  we  may  regard  it  as  in 
a high  degree  probable  that  immigrant  peoples  coming  into  North 
America  spread  over  the  continent  southward  most  rapidly,  and  in 
far  the  largest  numbers  along  the  broad  highway  of  the  Plains. 

Returning  now  to  the  questions  relating  to  the  physical  types 
found  in  North  America,  it  may  be  noted  that  for  Europe  the 
determination  of  the  sequence  in  which  the  several  types  ap- 
peared in  the  continent  and  spread  over  its  surface,  rests  in  the 
main  upon  definite  stratigraphic  or  archaeological  and  historical 
evidence.  In  the  New  World  little  evidence  of  this  sort  has  as 
yet  been  brought  to  light,  so  that  here  we  are  forced  to  rely  largely 
upon  what  is  frankly  a less  certain  indication  of  relative  age, 
but  one  which  is,  nevertheless,  generally  accepted  as  valid  in 
current  studies  of  the  distribution  and  history  of  animal  species. 
This  is  the  principle  that  in  the  distribution  of  species  within 
any  large  area,  such  as  that  of  a whole  continent,  those  which 
are  marginal  are  in  general  to  be  regarded  as  the  earlier,  in  com- 
parison with  species  having  a more  central  habitat.  The  older 
species,  whose  territory  is  invaded  by  another  type,  gives  ground 
and  is  in  the  end  either  pushed  toward  the  periphery,  or  forced 
into  “refuge  areas”  where  life  conditions  are  less  favorable  than 
in  the  rest  of  the  region,  the  better  and  more  favorable  lands 
being  appropriated  to  themselves  by  the  newcomers. 

Assuming,  then,  that  a peripheral  distribution  tends  to  in- 
dicate a relatively  ancient  stratum  of  population,  whereas  the 
more  recent  immigrants  are  to  be  looked  for  nearer  the  centre, 
we  may  learn  much  by  observing  what  is  the  distribution  of  the 
human  types  within  the  North  American  continent. 

Before  doing  so  a last  digression  must  be  allowed,  to  call  at- 


INTRODUCTION 


399 


tention  to  certain  facts  of  linguistic  distribution.  The  languages 
spoken  by  the  North  American  Indians  numbered  several  hun- 
dreds. These  have  been  grouped  into  a series  of  linguistic  stocks, 
each  comprising  from  one  or  two  to  a score  of  related  languages. 
The  number  of  such  stocks  is  still  a matter  of  some  uncertainty, 
but  the  generally  accepted  classification1  gives  approximately 
eighty  wholly  distinct  stocks  for  the  whole  of  the  northern  con- 
tinent. These  stocks  are  divisible  into  two  clearly  contrasted 
groups,  one  of  which  is  made  up  of  stocks  each  of  which  is  geo- 
graphically extensive,  covering  scores  or  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  square  miles;  whereas  the  other  group  includes  stocks  which 
are  confined,  as  a rule,  within  very  narrow  limits,  covering  an 
area  sometimes  with  a radius  of  only  thirty  or  forty  miles.  In 
the  first  group  we  may  reckon  the  Eskimo,  Athabascan,  Algon- 
kian,  Siouan,  Uto-Aztecan  (i.  e.,  the  former  Shoshonean,  Piman 
and  Nahuan),  Iroquoian,  Muskogean,  and  Salishan  stocks.  In 
their  distribution  they  cover  probably  nine-tenths  of  the  whole 
continent,  for  the  most  part  in  great  continuous  areas.  They 
appear,  however,  to  a small  extent  only  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
mainly  at  two  points— southern  California  and  the  region  from 
Puget  Sound  southward  to  and  slightly  beyond  the  mouth  of 
the  Columbia  River.  The  distribution  of  the  small  stocks  is 
quite  striking,  in  that  the  majority  are  found  in  a narrow  strip 
along  the  Pacific  shore,  while  nearly  all  the  remainder  are  either 
located  in  the  “refuge  area”  of  the  plateau  region  or  along  the 
southern  and  eastern  margins  of  the  continent.  This  concen- 
tration of  the  small  stocks  in  marginal  areas  long  since  led  to 
the  suggestion  that  they  may  represent  an  older  stratum  of  popu- 
lation, forced  out  from  the  rest  of  the  continent  by  the  expansion 
of  the  large  stocks,  who  thus  would  be  regarded  as  constituting 
a more  recent  layer.  That  this  hypothesis  fits  most  strikingly 
the  suggestions  here  put  forward  in  regard  to  the  racial  history 
of  the  continent  will,  I trust,  be  apparent  in  what  follows.  We 
may  now  at  last  turn  to  the  maps,  Plates  XXX  to  XXXIII, 
showing  the  distribution  of  the  physical  types. 

1 Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  1907,  1911. 


400 


NORTH  AMERICA 


The  most  cursory  inspection  reveals  one  fact  of  great  signif- 
icance, i.  e.,  the  dolichocephalic  types  are  concentrated  in  a very 
striking  fashion  in  marginal  areas.  Thus,  the  Caspian  and  Medi- 
terranean types  are  found  in  great  strength  along  the  northern 
and  northeastern  coast  of  the  continent  and  in  Greenland,  appear- 
ing elsewhere,  except  at  one  or  two  spots  on  or  near  the  Pacific 
coast,  as  factors  of  minor  importance  only.  The  Proto-Negroid 
and  Proto-Australoid  types  are  also  peripheral,  occurring  in 
largest  proportions  along  or  near  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  the 
region  east  of  the  Great  Lakes.  The  evidence  afforded  by 
geographic  distribution  thus  indicates  that  the  dolichocephalic 
types  are,  relatively  to  the  brachycephalic,  the  older  occupants 
of  the  area.  Since  this  result  is  corroborated  by  such  stratigraph- 
ic and  archaeological  evidence  as  has  yet  been  obtained  in  North 
America,  and  is  furthermore  in  accord  with  the  evidence  which 
we  possess  of  the  sequence  of  types  in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
it  seems  safe  to  accept  the  conclusion,  at  least  provisionally. 

We  should  next  turn  to  the  problems  involved  in  the  sequence 
of  these  early  dolichocephalic  types,  but  before  doing  so  a few 
words  of  reassurance  must  be  said.  The  reader  has  doubtless 
stared  with  surprise  not  unmixed  with  horror  at  the  audacity 
of  the  statement  that  Mediterranean  and  Caspian,  Proto-Aus- 
traloid and  Proto-Negroid  types  were  to  be  found  among  the 
American  Indians.  That  these  types  were  widely  distributed 
in  the  Old  World,  or  at  least  in  parts  of  it,  he  would  be  willing  to 
grant;  that  they  had  extended  even  into  the  island  area  of  the 
Pacific  he  may  somewhat  grudgingly  admit;  but  that  it  should 
be  suggested  that  they  were  to  be  found  in  the  New  World  is 
an  idea  so  completely  at  variance  with  traditional  and  current 
theories  that  he  would  be  inclined  to  regard  the  statement  as 
utterly  absurd ! The  suggestion  that  Mediterranean  or  Proto- 
Negroid  types,  for  example,  are  to  be  found  in  America  is  indeed 
revolutionary,  yet  not  quite  so  preposterous  as  it  may  seem  at 
first  sight,  if  it  be  only  kept  in  mind  that  the  statement  does  not 
mean  that  actual  Negroes  or  peoples  from  the  Mediterranean 
shores  are  supposed  to  have  migrated  to  the  New  World.  As 


J 


or  over 


110  Longitude  1QQ°  West  from  90 


Greenwich 


PLATE  XXX.  NORTH  AMERICA. 

Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  Types. 


PLATE  XXXII.  NORTH  AMERICA. 
Percentage  distribution  of  Palm- Alpine  and  Mongoloid  Types. 


PLATE  XXXIII.  NORTH  AMERICA. 
Percentage  distribution  of  Alpine  and  Ural  types. 


INTRODUCTION 


401 


has  been  pointed  out  in  the  introductory  chapter,  the  type  to 
which,  for  example,  the  name  of  Proto-Negroid  has  been  given 
carries  with  it  no  implication  in  regard  to  skin  color,  hair  form, 
or  any  other  superficial  or  structural  features  which  may  be  found 
in  the  modern  Negro.  The  statement  that  certain  crania  from 
North  America  are  of  Proto-Negroid  type  means  nothing  more 
than  that,  in  so  far  as  the  three  factors  of  Cephalic  Index , Length- 
Height  Index,  and  Nasal  Index  are  concerned,  these  crania  are 
similar  to  crania  of  African,  southern  Asiatic,  or  Oceanic  Negroid 
peoples.  In  how  far  such  similarity  in  these  particular  features 
is  paralleled  by  any  other  similarities,  or  is  in  any  way  indicative 
of  an  actual  community  of  origin  between  the  two  groups,  will 
be  discussed  in  the  final  chapter;  here  and  in  other  sections  deal- 
ing with  the  several  continental  areas  we  are  merely  concerned 
to  point  out  the  facts  of  distribution  and  apparent  historical 
sequence  of  our  wholly  arbitrary  types. 

If  the  reader  will  therefore  be  lenient  for  the  moment;  re- 
strain his  indignation  at  what  seems  a rank  absurdity,  suspend- 
ing judgment  in  regard  to  what  is  after  all  a novel  suggestion; 
and  regard  the  terms  Proto-Negroid,  Mediterranean,  etc.,  as 
merely  convenient  (although  perhaps  misleading)  names  for  a 
series  of  purely  arbitrary  types  which  might  just  as  well  be  de- 
nominated by  numbers  or  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  geographical  distribution  and  probable  sequence 
and  relations  of  these  types  are  surprisingly  significant  and  ac- 
cord in  most  cases  with  the  known  facts  of  aboriginal  history. 

After  this  digression  we  may  return  to  the  problems  before 
us.  Although  the  evidence  is  still  rather  contradictory  as  to 
the  relative  priority  of  the  broad-nosed  and  narrow-nosed  long- 
headed types,  it  seems  on  the  whole  probable  that  the  Proto- 
Australoid  must  have  been  one  of  the  earliest,  if  not  the  earliest, 
type  to  spread  into  the  North  American  continent.  On  the  Pa- 
cific coast  in  California  and  Lower  California  it  appears  to  con- 
stitute the  oldest  stratum,  characterizing  as  it  does  the  crania 
from  the  lower  layers  of  the  shell-heaps,  from  the  islands  of  Santa 
Catalina  and  San  Clemente  off  the  coast,  and  from  the  extinct 


402 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Pericue,  isolated  in  the  southern  tip  of  the  peninsula  of  Lower 
California.  It  is,  moreover,  prominent  among  the  ancient  Bas- 
ket-makers of  northern  Arizona,  who  represent  probably  one  of 
the  earliest  peoples  in  this  whole  area.  In  the  northeast  the  type 
is  of  importance  among  the  Iroquois  and  the  southern  Algonkian 
tribes,  such  as  the  Lenape. 

The  extreme  marginal  position  of  the  leptorrhine,  dolicho- 
cephalic types,  particularly  the  Caspian,  make  this  latter  a strong 
competitor  for  the  honor  of  being  the  earliest  type  in  the  con- 
tinent. Concentrated  in  remarkable  strength  among  the  Eskimo 
east  of  Point  Barrow;  occurring  in  the  underlying  strata  of  the 
Fraser  River  shell-heaps  on  the  British  Columbia  coast,  and 
among  the  undeformed  crania  from  Vancouver  Island,  but  pres- 
ent in  the  central  portions  of  the  continent  in  but  small  amount, 
it  must  either  have  been  a very  early  immigrant  which  has  long 
since  been  forced  to  the  wall,  or  have  distributed  itself  at  a later 
period  mainly  along  the  shores.  In  the  absence  of  adequate 
archaeological  data  the  question  must  be  left  open,  as  for  North 
America,  at  least,  evidence  of  its  preceding  or  succeding  the  Proto- 
Australoid  type  is  not  clear.  South  American  data,  however, 
would  seem  to  indicate  the  priority  of  the  Caspian  type  over  all 
others.  If  this  can  be  fully  substantiated,  it  would  obviously 
solve  the  problem  for  the  northern  continent  as  well,  since  the  pop- 
ulation of  South  America  must  have  been  derived  from  the  north. 

The  considerable  strength  of  the  Mediterranean  type  among 
some  of  the  Eskimo,  the  Shoshonean  tribes  in  the  “refuge  area” 
of  Utah  and  Nevada,  and  especially  in  the  shell-heaps  along  the 
Maine  coast,  suggest  that  this  type  also  reached  the  continent 
early,  for  the  considerable  factor  of  it  among  some  of  the  Siouan 
tribes  of  the  northern  plains  may  be  ascribed  to  their  immigra- 
tion thither  from  the  east.  Except  in  the  case  of  the  Eskimo, 
however,  the  number  of  crania  on  which  the  evidence  of  the  pres- 
ence of  this  type  rests  is  very  small,  so  that  here  again  judgment 
must  be  suspended  until  fuller  data  are  to  be  had.  As  a factor 
in  the  complex  of  the  whole  population,  however,  it  seems  prob- 
ably to  have  been  of  very  minor  importance. 

The  Proto-Negroid  type  has  a very  striking  distribution. 


INTRODUCTION 


403 


Except  for  its  rather  unexpected  strength  among  the  ancient 
Basket-makers  in  Arizona,  it  nowhere  seems  to  have  played  an 
important  part  in  the  whole  area  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
It  is,  nevertheless,  of  considerable  importance  among  the  Iroquois 
and  southern  Algonkian  tribes,  and  in  the  early  crania  from  the 
Turner  group  mounds  in  the  Ohio  valley  and  the  prehistoric 
cist-grave  people  of  Tennessee.  All  of  which  suggests  a rather 
special  concentration  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  continent. 
It  is  also  significant,  in  connection  with  the  presence  of  this  type 
in  the  Basket-makers,  that  it  is  the  dominant  factor  in  the 
crania  from  the  burial  caves  in  Coahuila  in  northern  Mexico, 
since  many  striking  similarities  in  culture  have  been  pointed 
out  between  these  two  peoples.1  The  complete  absence  of  the 
Proto-Negroid  type  in  the  extreme  north  and  northeast  and 
along  the  Pacific  coast  would  indicate  that  it  may  well  have  been 
the  last  of  the  dolichocephalic  types  to  make  its  way  into  the 
continent. 

If  the  sequence  of  the  various  dolichocephalic  types  is  still 
more  or  less  obscure,  that  of  the  brachycephalic  factors  which 
undoubtedly  followed  is,  on  the  contrary , much  more  clear.  Com- 
parison of  the  maps  giving  the  distribution  of  the  broad  and 
narrow  nosed  round-headed  types,  shows  convincingly  that  the 
latter  form  a vast  wedge  whose  base  extends  entirely  across 
the  continent,  from  British  Columbia  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, and  stretches  southward  between  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  the  Great  Lakes  through  the  Plains  almost  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  The  platyrrhine,  brachycephalic  types,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  concentrated  among  the  Shoshonean  and  Athabascan 
tribes  in  the  plateau  region  west  of  the  Rockies  and,  to  a less 
noticeable  degree,  in  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  continent 
among  the  Muskogean  tribes  and  such  isolated  southeastern 
Plains  groups  as  the  Tonkawa  and  the  pre-Nahuan  Tarascan 
people  of  Michoacan  in  Mexico.  The  inference  is,  I think, 
clear,  that  here  the  latter  types  have  been  driven  back  into  the 
less  favorable  environment  of  the  plateaus  and  into  the  south- 
eastern area  by  a powerful  movement  from  the  north  of  the  lep- 
1 Kidder  and  Guernsey,  1919;  Guernsey  and  Kidder,  1921. 


404 


NORTH  AMERICA 


torrhine,  brachycephalic  peoples,  coming  southward  through  the 
Plains. 

While  all  the  previous  drifts  were  probably  so  ancient  as  to 
have  left  no  obvious  trace,  the  very  last  movements  of  the  most 
recent  type  to  come  into  the  continent  may  perhaps  be  dimly 
seen  in  the  prehistoric  southward  migrations  of  the  Navaho  and 
Apache,  of  whom  the  former  may  have  come  into  their  historic 
habitat  during  the  period  while  the  Cliff  Dwellings  were  still 
occupied;  and  possibly  more  faintly  yet  in  the  history  of  the 
great  Siouan  stock  which  will  be  suggested  later  in  discussing 
the  types  present  in  the  region  south  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Actual 
stratigraphic  evidence,  moreover,  of  the  supplanting  of  the  older 
platyrrhine  types  by  the  leptorrhine  seems  to  be  afforded  by  the 
data  being  secured  by  the  Andover  Expedition  at  Pecos  in  New 
Mexico. 

Discussion  of  the  relative  importance  and  the  historic  se- 
quence of  the  Palae-Alpine  type  as  compared  with  the  Mongoloid, 
or  of  the  Alpine  as  compared  with  the  Ural  is,  on  the  basis  of 
our  present  data,  which  for  much  of  the  region  dominated  by 
brachycephaly  is  confined  to  measurements  on  the  living,  as  yet 
hardly  possible.  What  conclusions  we  may  be  entitled  to  draw 
in  these  connections  will  be  pointed  out  in  the  later  pages,  where 
the  several  subdivisions  of  this  area  are  discussed. 

In  broad  lines,  then,  a hasty  survey  of  the  distribution  of  types 
in  North  America  leads  to  the  conclusion  that,  just  as  in  the  Old 
World  we  can  discern,  beginning  in  earliest  times,  a series  of 
drifts  or  waves  of  differing  physical  types,  which  have  on  the 
whole  arranged  themselves  in  such  fashion  that  the  dolicho- 
cephalic and  presumably  older  peoples  are  found  distributed 
mainly  along  the  margins  of  the  continent,  whereas  the  brachy- 
cephalic, younger  peoples  occupy  in  a solid,  unbroken  mass  the 
whole  interior,  in  North  America,  just  as  in  Asia,  in  Europe,  and 
in  the  Pacific  region,  the  supplanting  of  the  older  dolichocephalic 
peoples  by  the  later  brachycephalic  ones  has  gone  on  relent- 
lessly, and  here,  as  there,  the  brachycephalization  of  the  conti- 
nent was  by  the  sixteenth  century  almost  complete. 


INTRODUCTION 


405 


The  peculiar  conformation  of  the  North  American  continent 
in  its  connection  with  South  America  by  a long  and  narrow  isth- 
mus, raises  some  very  special  problems.  Through  this  narrow- 
ing gateway  of  Middle  America  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
the  ancestors  of  the  great  majority  of  the  peoples  of  the  southern 
continent  must  have  passed,  although  a minority  may  have  jour- 
neyed from  Florida  by  way  of  the  Antillean  chain.  Through 
this  restricted  passage,  therefore,  wave  after  wave  of  peoples  of 
different  types  must  have  forced  their  way,  since,  as  will  be  shown 
in  the  chapter  devoted  to  South  America,  the  population  there 
was  almost  as  complex  as  that  in  the  north.  Does  not  the  neces- 
sity of  bringing  all  these  differing  types  through  so  constricted 
a single  passage  constitute  an  insuperable  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  the  present  hypothesis  and  prove  its  utter  absurdity?  It 
might  seem  so,  and  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  theory  are, 
it  must  be  freely  admitted,  very  great;  yet  any  hypothesis  which 
attempts  to  account  for  the  origin  and  spread  of  the  South  Amer- 
ican peoples  from  the  northern  continent  must  meet  many  of  the 
same  obstacles — and  no  other  origin  will,  I think,  be  admitted  to- 
day by  serious  students  of  American  problems. 

Further  discussion  of  these  questions  may  be  left  to  the  chap- 
ter dealing  with  the  South  American  peoples;  they  are  referred 
to  here  in  order  to  emphasize  the  extreme  importance,  for  any 
theory,  of  securing  adequate  cranial  material  from  the  whole 
Middle  American  region.  That  any  of  the  earlier  physical  types 
should  still  survive  in  such  a migration-swept,  narrow  corridor 
is  surprising,  yet  the  strong  dolichocephalic  factors  present  among 
the  Otomi  and  some  of  the  southern  Mayan  tribes  seem  to  show 
that  it  is  not  impossible.  Far  more  significant  for  any  hypothesis 
would  be  direct  archaeological  or  stratigraphic  evidence,  nothing 
of  which  has  as  yet  been  reported.  Prophecy  is  a very  dangerous 
pastime,  yet  I believe  it  may  be  confidently  predicted  that  when 
we  obtain,  as  some  day  we  must,  skeletal  remains  of  the  people 
responsible  for  the  so-called  Archaic  Culture  of  this  region,  they 
will  be  found  to  show  the  presence  of  a considerable,  possibly 
a dominant,  factor  of  the  ancient  dolichocephalic  types. 


406 


NORTH  AMERICA 


At  the  outset  of  any  attempt  to  present  the  facts  in  regard 
to  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  aboriginal  peoples  of  North 
America,  and  the  arguments  in  favor  of  the  complexity  of  their 
origin,  it  must  be  pointed  out  that  the  published  data  are  still 
so  incomplete  that  the  task  appears  almost  hopeless.  For  large 
portions  of  the  continent  we  possess  no  adequate  materials  what- 
soever, as,  for  example,  the  whole  northwestern  part  of  the  area 
with  the  exception  of  a few  points  along  the  coast,  and  prac- 
tically all  of  the  continent  south  of  the  United  States-Mexican 
border.  For  some  other  sections  the  data  are  of  the  scantiest,  so 
that  were  it  not  for  the  courtesy  and  generosity  which  have  al- 
lowed me  to  utilize  large  series  of  unpublished  measurements, 
both  of  crania1  and  of  living  Indians,2  it  would  have  been  impos- 
sible to  present  anything  but  an  extremely  incomplete  picture  of 
the  facts. 

If,  on  the  basis  of  the  method  of  analysis  employed  in  this 
study,  the  relative  intensity  of  the  dolichocephalic  factors  pres- 
ent among  the  various  tribes  is  plotted  on  a map,  the  result  is  that 
shown  on  Plate  XXXIV.  Reference  to  this  map  at  once  reveals 
the  fact  that  long-headedness  is  concentrated  in  two  widely 
separated  areas.  The  largest  and  most  important  of  these  ex- 
tends over  the  whole  northern  and  northeastern  coastal  portions 
of  the  continent,  including  Greenland;  the  smaller  and  more 
broken  area  lies,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  opposite  or  extreme 
southwestern  corner.  Everywhere  between  these  two  marginal 
regions,  brachycephalic  factors,  so  far  as  known,  prevail. 

In  the  presentation  and  discussion  of  the  data  in  regard  to 
the  aboriginal  peoples  of  North  America,  it  will  be  most  con- 
venient to  group  the  material  according  to  the  divisions  shown 
on  this  map,  viz.:  (i)  A Northeastern  Dolichocephalic  area; 

(2)  a Southwestern  Dolichocephalic  ^rea;  and  (3)  a Central 
Brachycephalic  area. 

1 U.  S.  National  Museum,  Washington;  American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
New  York  City;  Department  of  Anthropology,  University  of  California,  Berkeley, 
California;  Victoria  Memorial  Museum,  Ottawa;  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Sciences. 

2 Measurements  taken  for  the  Department  of  Anthropology  of  the  Chicago  Ex- 
position, 1893,  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Franz  Boas  of  Columbia  University. 


PLATE  XXXIV.  NORTH  AMERICA. 
Percentage  of  Dolichocephals. 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  DOLICHOCEPHALS 

On  the  basis  of  our  present  knowledge,  we  may  include  in 
this  group:  (i)  all  the  Eskimo  tribes  of  Greenland  and  the  Arctic 
archipelago  and  those  of  the  mainland  living  east  of  Point  Bar- 
row  in  Alaska;  (2)  the  eastern  Algonkian  tribes  south  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  to  and  including  the  Lenape  or  Delaware;  and  (3)  the 
proto-historic  and  early  historic  Iroquoian  tribes  of  Ontario  and 
New  York. 

Although  all  the  peoples  of  this  whole  region  are  similar  in 
showing  a larger  or  smaller  majority  of  dolichocephalic  factors, 
they  are  divisible  into  a number  of  subdivisions,  which  are  rather 
clearly  differentiated  in  their  character. 

Although  the  Eskimo  language  is  spoken  along  the  whole  of  the 
main  Alaskan  coast  and  throughout  the  chain  of  the  Aleutian  Isl- 
ands, the  physical  type  of  those  west  and  south  of  Point  Barrow 
is  quite  different  from  those  to  the  eastward.  These  latter  show 
a considerable  uniformity  in  their  characteristics.  In  stature 
they  are  for  the  most  part  under  the  medium,  those  of  Green- 
land1 and  the  Arctic  archipelago-  averaging  about  162  cm.  The 
Eskimo  farther  west,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Mackenzie  delta3  and 
Point  Barrow,4  are  somewhat  taller,  with  an  average  of  168  cm., 
whereas  those  in  Labrador5  are  shorter,  the  average  falling  some- 
what below  160  cm.  The  skin  color  is  in  general  lighter  than 
that  of  the  average  Indian  and  the  cheeks  have  not  uncommonly 
a distinct  rosy  tinge.  If  the  considerable  body  of  cranial  data6 
for  this  whole  area  be  analyzed,  it  appears  that  the  Caspian 
type  is  everywhere  in  large  majority,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  the  Smith  Sound  region  in  northeast  Greenland  and  among 

1 Hansen,  1886,  1893.  2 Tocher,  1902.  3 Boas,  1901. 

4 Hawkes,  1916.  6 Pittard,  1901. 

6Furst,  1915;  Bessels,  1875;  Duckworth,  1900;  Sergi,  1901;  Oetteking,  1908; 
Hrdlicka,  1910. 


407 


408 


NORTH  AMERICA 


the  people  of  the  Mackenzie  delta  area,  where  the  Mediterranean 
type,  elsewhere  secondary,  assumes  first  place.  The  two  types 
together  everywhere  make  up  from  70  to  90  per  cent  of  the  total 
factors  concerned.  The  only  brachycephalic  element  which  ap- 
pears is  the  Alpine,  present  only  as  a trace  except  in  Southampton 
Island,  in  southwest  Greenland,  and  in  the  small  series  described 
by  Hrdlicka  from  Smith  Sound.  The  presence  of  a considerable 
minority  of  the  Alpine  type  in  the  latter  remote  group  of  Eskimo 
is  hard  to  understand,  since  the  much  larger  series  from  the  same 
region,  given  by  Bessels  and  the  Danish  collections  from  the  im- 
mediately adjacent  area  to  the  south,  show  only  the  merest  trace 
of  this  factor.  Its  presence  in  southwestern  Greenland  is  prob- 
ably due  to  a certain  amount  of  European  intermixture,  which 
is  known  to  have  occurred  here  in  greater  degree  than  elsewhere. 
A striking  feature  of  the  Eskimo  crania  is  the  disharmony  be- 
tween the  face  and  head,  the  former  being  exceptionally  wide, 
the  latter  very  narrow;  and  between  the  face  and  the  nose,  for, 
in  spite  of  the  great  width  of  the  former,  the  nose  is  almost  at 
the  extreme  of  narrowness.  This  width  of  face  and  narrowness 
of  head  have  been  ascribed  to  the  abnormal  development  of  the 
chewing  muscles,  due  to  special  food  conditions.  In  view  of  the 
fact,  however,  that  it  is  less  marked  in  the  women  than  in  the 
men,  in  spite  of  the  practice  by  the  former  of  chewing  the  skins 
used  for  making  moccasins  and  clothing,  the  question  of  the 
cause  of  the  phenomenon  cannot,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as  fully 
settled.  An  example  of  the  Eskimo  type  is  given  on  Plate  XXXV, 
Fig.  1. 

In  the  early  sixteenth  century  the  Eskimo  occupied  not  only 
the  Labrador  coast,  but  the  northern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence as  far  west  probably  as  the  island  of  Anticosti,  as  well  as 
the  northern  tip  of  Newfoundland.  The  southern  shores  of  the 
Gulf  and  the  whole  area  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  were  occupied 
by  the  Algonkian  tribes  of  the  Micmac  and  Malecite.  From  this 
region  we  possess,  unfortunately,  no  cranial  data,  but  measure- 
ments on  the  living1  (now  unquestionably  somewhat  mixed  with 


1 Boas. 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  DOLICHOCEPHALS 


409 


French-Canadian  blood)  show  them  to  be  a people  of  tall  stature 
(average  173  cm.),  with  a predominance  of  narrow-nosed,  doli- 
chocephalic factors,  yet  with  considerable  brachycephalic  ele- 
ments, which  are  apparently  of  both  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine 
types,  and  in  part,  perhaps,  due  to  the  European  mixture.  A 
possible  source  of  part  of  the  brachycephalic  factors  may  be  found 
in  the  absorption  by  the  Micmac  of  an  earlier  population.  The 
Beothuk  or  Red  Indians  of  Newfoundland  have  in  historic  times 
been  confined  to  a portion  only  of  that  island.  From  the  two 
or  three  crania  of  this  tribe  whose  measurements  have  been  pub- 
lished,1 they  would  appear  to  have  been  primarily  brachycephalic 
in  type.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  they  formerly 
occupied  a larger  area  and  were  driven  into  their  restricted  habitat 
by  the  incoming  Micmac  or  other  Algonkian  tribes,  and  that 
their  partial  absorption  by  these  would  account  for  part  at  least 
of  the  brachycephalic  factors  found.  Owing  to  the  absence  of 
cranial  material  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  the  dolichocephalic 
element  in  the  Micmac  is  the  Caspian,  which  would  ally  them 
with  the  Eskimo,  or  the  Mediterranean,  which  would  affiliate 
them  more  closely  perhaps  with  the  builders  of  the  shell-heaps 
along  the  Maine  coast. 

In  contrast  with  these  more  easterly  Algonkian  tribes,  our 
knowledge  of  those  of  New  England  is  wholly  derived  from  crania, 
since  the  pure-blood  Indian  of  the  greater  portion  of  this  area 
has  been  long  extinct.  The  larger  number  of  the  crania2  are  from 
sites  in  central  and  eastern  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island, 
and  show  on  analysis  that  the  dominant  element  in  all  this  area 
is,  most  unexpectedly,  the  Proto-Negroid  ! At  first  thought  such 
a suggestion  seems  impossible,  yet  on  the  basis  of  the  criteria  here 
adopted  the  fact  cannot  be  denied,  and,  as  the  crania  are  with  a 
few  exceptions  almost  certainly  pre-European  or  from  the  period 
of  the  earliest  contact,  no  possibility  of  historic  Negro  mixture 
is  admissible.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  same  type  is 
found  in  considerable  strength  in  the  Baltic  region  and  north- 
western Russia  in  prehistoric  and  early  historic  times,  and  is  a 
1 Busk,  1875-76.  “Knight,  1915;  P.  M. 


410 


NORTH  AMERICA 


strong  factor  among  the  present-day  Ainu  of  northern  Japan, 
its  presence  here  in  America  is  perhaps  not  quite  so  surprising. 
We  shall  return  to  the  problems  involved  in  this  case  in  the  final 
chapter. 

The  type  of  secondary  importance  differentiates  the  people 
of  the  Massachusetts  coast  from  those  of  the  Connecticut  valley 
and  Rhode  Island,  in  that  whereas  in  the  former  this  is  a Medi- 
terranean factor,  in  the  latter  it  is  of  the  Proto-Australoid  type. 
The  significance  of  this  division  becomes  immediately  apparent 
when  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  adjacent  areas.  From  Maine1 
we  have  as  yet  very  meagre  data,  in  large  part  derived  from 
the  shell-heaps,  some  of  which  are  on  archaeological  evidence 
considerably  older  than  the  historic  Algonkian  tribes  of  the 
vicinity,  and  thus  may  be  taken  (?)  as  representing  a more 
ancient  population  than  that  from  which  the  southern  New  Eng- 
land crania  are  derived.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the  Maine  crania 
show  a strong  predominance  of  the  Mediterranean  type,  whose 
presence  in  the  population  of  the  Massachusetts  coast  region 
served  to  differentiate  it  from  that  of  the  interior  and  Rhode 
Island.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  there  was  ground  for 
believing  that  the  Massachusetts  tribes  of  the  coast  were  closely 
related  to  the  older  peoples  of  the  northern  New  England  shores, 
and  that  they  had  been  overlaid,  in  part,  by  a different  people, 
characterized  by  strong  factors  of  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- 
Australoid  types,  who  came  in  from  the  west  and  southwest. 
This  gradual  modification  of  the  population  of  the  New  England 
area  from  northeast  to  southwest,  is  further  brought  out  by  the 
fact  that,  whereas  in  the  shell-heaps  the  male  crania  are  all  doli- 
chocephalic, an  increasing  brachycephalic  factor  makes  itself 
felt  as  one  goes  southward,  consisting  mainly  of  the  Pake-Alpine 
type. 

If  we  turn  now  to  the  Lenape  or  Delaware2  tribes,  also  be- 
longing to  the  Algonkian  linguistic  group,  and  occupying  a con- 
siderable area  west  of  the  lower  Hudson,  south  along  the  coast 
as  far  as  Delaware  and  inland  toward  western  Pennsylvania,  we 

2 Hrdlicka,  1902,  1916. 


lP.  M. 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  DOLICHOCEPHALS 


411 


find  that  they  are  virtually  identical  with  the  Rhode  Island  tribes, 
who  thus  appear  as  the  extreme  northeastern  representatives  of 
a group  which  centres  in  the  Delaware  valley. 

We  are  now  in  a position  to  consider  the  complex  and  in- 
teresting problems  presented  by  the  various  tribes  of  Iroquoian 
speech,  living  in  the  Ontario  peninsula  and  southward  in  north- 
ern Ohio  and  Pennsylvania,  western  New  York,  and  extending 
in  a narrow  strip  along  the  St.  Lawrence  River  as  far  as  Quebec. 
For  the  Iroquois  proper,  the  Five  Nations  who  formed  the  orig- 
inal League  of  the  Iroquois,  we  have  both  cranial  data  and  mea- 
surements on  the  living;  for  the  Eries  of  the  southern  shore  of 
the  lake  of  the  same  name  and  for  the  Canadian  tribes,  the  Neu- 
trals and  Hurons,  we  have  only  cranial  material. 

Taking  first  the  Iroquois  crania,1  which  are  in  the  main  of 
prehistoric  and  proto-historic  age,  we  find,  on  the  basis  of  a com- 
bined series  from  the  different  single  tribes,  that  these  people 
were  at  least  as  similar  to  both  the  Connecticut  valley  and 
Lenape  series  as  either  of  these  is  to  the  other.  In  all  three  the 
primary  factor  is  the  Proto-Negroid,  the  secondary  the  Proto- 
Australoid.  With  the  tribes  of  central  and  western  Massachu- 
setts the  Iroquois  have  in  common  a small  Mediterranean  fac- 
tor, which  is  still  more  strongly  represented  on  the  Massachusetts 
coast  and  in  the  shell-heaps  of  Maine.  With  the  Lenape,  the 
Iroquois  agree  in  having  a Caspian  factor  rather  larger  than  in 
the  case  of  the  New  England  tribes.  To  all  intents  and  purposes, 
thus,  the  Iroquois,  the  Lenape,  and  the  southern  and  western 
New  England  tribes  formed  a single  unit. 

The  Eries,2  who  were  the  western  neighbors  of  the  Iroquois, 
seem,  on  the  evidence  of  a small  series  of  crania  only,  to  have 
resembled  the  latter,  in  that  the  dominant  element  among  them 
was  still  the  Proto-Negroid,  but  differed  in  comprising  larger 
Caspian  and  Mediterranean  factors,  which  would  tend  to  ally 
them  with  the  Huron.  The  Neutrals3  differ  somewhat  more, 
in  that  they  appear  to  have  an  unusually  large  element  of  the 

1 U.  S.  N.  M.;  A.  N.  S.  P.;  Buffalo  Society  of  Natural  History. 

s P.  M.  3 U.  S.  N.  M.;  Victoria  Memorial  Museum,  Ottawa. 


412 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Proto-Australoid  type.  Both  Eries  and  Neutrals,  moreover,  have 
considerably  larger  brachycephalic  factors  (the  former  Alpine, 
the  latter  Pahe-Alpine)  than  the  Iroquois. 

The  Hurons,1  finally,  carry  us  one  stage  farther.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  Neutrals,  the  dominant  element  here  is  the  Proto- 
Australoid,  and  the  factor  of  secondary  importance  is  the  Cas- 
pian, which  has  risen  considerably  in  strength  from  its  minority 
position  among  the  Iroquois;  the  Proto-Negroid,  on  the  other 
hand,  which  stood  first  in  the  list  among  the  latter,  has  fallen 
in  the  Huron  to  fifth  place,  while  the  Mediterranean  on  the  con- 
trary has  doubled  in  importance.  Crania  from  York  and  Dur- 
ham Counties,  not  certainly  Huron  and  from  an  area  outside 
their  historical  limits,  are  much  more  like  the  Iroquois  and 
Eries. 

What  do  all  these  facts  mean?  Briefly  this,  that,  whereas 
the  Iroquoian  tribes  south  of  the  Lakes  were  physically  closely 
affiliated  with  the  Algonkian  peoples  of  southern  New  Eng- 
land, the  Iroquoian  tribes  north  of  the  Lakes  in  Canada,  espe- 
cially the  Hurons  and  Neutrals,  stood  somewhat  apart,  and  had 
their  relations  more  with  the  Eskimo  and  Algonkian  tribes  of 
the  Maritime  Provinces.  This  would  suggest  that  the  Huron 
and  Neutral  tribes  represent  an  older  stratum  of  the  Iroquoian 
group,  which,  coming  into  the  area  while  it  was  still  occupied 
by  the  Algonkian  tribes  who  later  were  driven  into  the  Maritime 
Provinces  and  northern  New  England,  and  still  occupied  per- 
haps north  of  the  St.  Lawrence  by  the  Eskimo,  had  amalgamated 
somewhat  with  these,  before  the  coming  of  the  later  stratum 
represented  by  the  Iroquois  proper. 

It  will  be  at  once  realized  that  the  physical  relationships 
suggested  for  the  Iroquoian  tribes  have  certain  interesting  con- 
sequences. Culturally  and  linguistically  the  Iroquoian  tribes 
show  unmistakable  evidence  of  southern  or  southwestern  affili- 
ations; culturally  with  the  Muskogean  tribes  of  the  Gulf  states, 
linguistically  with  the  Caddoan  tribes  of  the  central  and  south- 
ern Plains.  From  the  racial  standpoint,  however,  they  have 
1 U.  S.  N.  M.;  Victoria  Memorial  Museum,  Ottawa. 


Fig.  2.  Seneca. 


Fig.  3.  Maidu. 

PLATE  XXXV. 


Fig.  4.  Pima. 


Fig.  1.  Eskimo. 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  DOLICHOCEPHALS 


413 


little  or  nothing  in  common  with  these  peoples,  who  are  pri- 
marily brachycephalic.  It  seems  hard,  therefore,  in  spite  of 
numerous  difficulties  in  the  way,  to  avoid  the  suggestion  that 
we  may  have  here  a striking  case  of  acculturation,  in  which  a 
small  but  energetic  group  of  immigrants  or  conquerors,  coming 
from  the  southwestward  and  possessed  of  a higher  culture,  suc- 
ceeded in  forcing  their  speech  and  habits  of  life  upon  their 
predecessors,  by  whom  they  were,  however,  in  the  end  racially 
absorbed. 

We  have  so  far  dealt  only  with  the  early  historic  and  proto- 
historic  population  of  the  Iroquoian  area;  there  remains  to  point 
out  briefly  the  striking  contrast  afforded  by  their  living  descen- 
dants. Data  as  yet  unpublished1  are  at  hand  only  for  the  Mo- 
hawk and  Seneca,  two  of  the  tribes  of  the  Iroquois  group.  The 
former  show  a large  majority  of  brachycephalic  factors,  the  nar- 
row-nosed type  (presumably  Alpine)  amounting  alone  to  nearly 
50  per  cent  of  the  total.  The  Seneca  series  is  much  smaller,  but 
shows,  in  contrast  to  the  Mohawk,  a slight  dominance  of  doli- 
chocephalic elements,  in  which  the  narrow-nosed  types  are  in  the 
majority.  The  contrast  between  the  two  series  is  striking,  but 
that  between  the  living  and  their  early  historic  or  proto-historic 
ancestors  is  remarkable.  The  Mohawk  from  a strongly  doli- 
chocephalic people  have  changed  to  a brachycephalic  one;  and 
while  the  Seneca  are  still  by  a narrow  margin  dolichocephalic, 
they  seem  to  have  changed  their  nasal  character  from  broad  to 
narrow!  The  transformation  of  the  Mohawk  may  perhaps  be 
explained  as  due  to  considerable  European  admixture  and  to  the 
assimilation  of  war  captives  taken  from  the  rather  strongly 
brachycephalic  tribes  to  the  south  and  west,  conquered  by  the 
Iroquois  during  the  period  of  the  aggressive  activity  of  the 
League.  The  apparent  change  in  the  nasal  character  of  the 
Seneca  is  not  so  easy  to  account  for,  but  may  be  due  to  the 
fact  that  nasal  measurements  on  the  living  cannot  be  exactly 
correlated  with  those  on  the  skull.  We  shall  see  that  elsewhere 
in  the  continent,  notably  among  the  Sioux  and  Ute,  even  greater 


1 Boas. 


414 


NORTH  AMERICA 


discrepancies  are  to  be  found  between  the  two  kinds  of  measure- 
ments. A Seneca  portrait  is  given  on  Plate  XXXV,  Fig.  2. 

The  results  of  our  study  of  the  northeastern  area  may  be 
briefly  summed  up  as  follows.  The  whole  region  is  in  the  first 
place  divisible  into  two  very  unequal  parts,  of  which  the  larger, 
comprising  the  great  length  of  coast-line  held  by  the  Eskimo, 
was  occupied  by  an  almost  purely  dolichocephalic  population, 
primarily  of  Caspian  type,  but  with  considerable  admixture  of 
the  Mediterranean,  especially  toward  the  west.  No  evidence 
has  yet  been  found  that  the  area  occupied  by  the  Eskimo  has 
ever  been  inhabited  by  people  of  any  different  type.  The  second 
and  smaller  of  the  two  main  portions  of  the  northeastern  area 
is  less  uniform  than  that  occupied  by  the  Eskimo,  for  it  is  clearly 
to  be  divided  into  two  sections,  a northeastern,  comprising  the 
St.  Lawrence  valley  and  the  Maritime  Provinces,  in  which  the 
population,  by  the  presence  of  large  factors  of  both  Caspian  and 
Mediterranean  types,  shows  some  relationship  to  the  Eskimo;  and 
a southwestern,  the  occupants  of  which  belonged  primarily  to 
the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- Australoid  types.  The  former 
section  was  further  differentiated  from  the  latter  by  the  presence 
of  a considerable  minority  of  brachycephalic  elements. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  SOUTHWESTERN  DOLICHOCEPHALS 

The  other  region  in  which  long-headed  peoples  were  formerly 
or  are  still  in  the  majority  lies  mainly  in  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  continent,  extending  from  the  southern  part  of  the  British 
Columbia  coast  south  to  the  tip  of  Lower  California,  and  east- 
ward through  southern  Nevada,  northern  Arizona  and  southern 
Utah,  into  the  states  of  Sonora  and  Chihuahua  in  northern 
Mexico.  In  area  this  region  is  much  smaller  than  the  one  just 
discussed,  and  the  dolichocephalic  groups,  instead  of  having  a 
continuous  distribution,  are,  so  far  as  our  present  knowledge 
goes,  somewhat  widely  scattered.  There  has  also  been  more 
change  in  the  character  of  the  population  here  since  prehistoric 
times  than  in  the  northeast. 

The  most  clearly  marginal  and  outlying  dolichocephalic  type 
in  the  northeastern  area  was  the  Caspian,  which  formed  the  fun- 
damental stratum  in  the  Eskimo;  on  the  opposite  margin  of  the 
continent  the  same  element  occurs  as  a dominant  or  important 
factor  at  two  points,  the  shell-heaps  of  San  Francisco  Bay  and 
the  coastal  sites  just  to  the  south,1  and  in  the  lower  strata  of  the 
shell-heaps  of  the  Fraser  River  delta  in  British  Columbia2  and  the 
neighboring  parts  of  Vancouver  Island.3  In  the  first  region  the 
Caspian  type  is  dominant  in  the  graves  south  of  the  bay  and  is 
strongly  represented  (although  actually  secondary  to  the  Palae- 
Alpine  type)  in  the  upper  strata  of  the  shell-heaps,  the  Proto- 
Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types  being  more  important  in 
the  lower  layers.  Here,  therefore,  the  Caspian  type  is  obviously 
not  the  oldest,  but  was  preceded  by  both  broad-nosed  dolicho- 
cephalic types,  and,  as  will  be  seen  presently,  followed  by  brachy- 
cephalic  types  who  were  in  the  majority  among  the  historic  popu- 

lU.  C.;  Hrdlicka,  1906.  2 Boas,  1903.  3J3oas,  1890. 

415 


416 


NORTH  AMERICA 


lation.  Farther  north,  in  British  Columbia,  however,  the  Cas- 
pian appears  to  lie  at  the  bottom  of  the  series.  The  practice  of 
cranial  deformation  throughout  much  of  the  Washington  and 
Oregon  coast  region,  and  the  almost  total  absence  of  cranial  data 
make  it  impossible  to  say  whether  other  traces  of  the  Caspian 
type  exist  in  this  intermediate  area.  The  fact,  however,  that  the 
Yuki,1  a small  group  of  Indians  speaking  an  isolated  language  and 
living  on  the  coast  north  of  San  Francisco,  show  a large  factor 
of  the  narrow-nosed  dolichocephalic  type,  suggests  that  this 
type  was  formerly  widely  spread  along  this  portion  of  the  Pacific 
coast.  In  stature,  both  the  prehistoric  peoples  of  Caspian  type 
and  the  modern  Yuki  are,  like  the  Eskimo,  short. 

Associated  everywhere  with  the  Caspian  type  in  the  north- 
eastern area  we  found  a minority  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
while  the  rather  meagre  character  of  the  data  for  the  area  now 
under  discussion  makes  conclusions  less  certain,  it  seems  to  be 
clear  that  the  Mediterranean  type  is  strongly  represented  here, 
more  so  indeed  than  in  any  other  section  of  the  continent  except 
the  northeast.  It  makes  up  nearly  half  the  total  factors  in  the 
case  of  the  Ute2  and  Pi-Ute2  crania  from  Nevada  and  Utah;  it 
is  overwhelmingly  dominant  in  the  ancient  crania  from  the  island 
of  San  Clemente2  off  the  southern  California  coast,  and  is  a very 
large  factor  in  the  series  from  the  neighboring  island  of  Santa 
Catalina;3  and  it  is  of  large  importance  in  the  male  crania  from 
the  ancient  Basket-maker4  sites  in  northern  Arizona.  Since 
these  latter  represent  an  extremely  ancient  culture,  long  antedat- 
ing probably  the  Pueblo  and  Cliff-Dweller  peoples,  we  have  con- 
vincing evidence  that  this  type,  like  the  Caspian,  was  a very  early 
one  in  this  whole  region,  although  in  historic  times  it  had  largely 
disappeared.  On  the  California  coast,  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Fran- 
cisco at  least,  it  is  perhaps  significant  that  this  Mediterranean 
type  occurs  in  combination  with  the  Caspian,  as  among  the  Es- 
kimo. 

In  the  northeastern  area  it  was  found  that  the  more  northerly 
region  was  characterized  by  the  predominance  of  the  narrow- 


1 Boas,  1905  a.  2 U.  S.  N.  M. 


4 P.  M.;  A.  M.  N.  H. 


3 P.  M. 


THE  SOUTHWESTERN  DOLICHOCEPHALS 


417 


nosed  or  leptorrhine  dolichocephalic  types,  whereas  the  region 
south  and  west  showed  a majority  of  the  platyrrhine  forms.  As 
a partial  parallel  to  these  conditions,  we  find  a strong  Proto- 
Australoid  factor  present  here  in  the  southwestern  portion  of 
the  continent.  It  is  the  dominant  type  by  a large  majority  in 
the  island  of  Santa  Catalina  in  both  male  and  female  series,  and 
for  the  females  in  San  Clemente;  and  it  was  even  more  important 
among  the  now  extinct  Pericue1  of  the  southern  tip  of  the  Lower 
California  peninsula.  This  latter  region  and  the  islands  off  the 
California  coast  are  the  most  isolated  and  marginal  portions  of 
the  whole  continent  here,  and  the  dominance  in  such  large  mea- 
suie  of  the  Proto- Australoid  type  is,  as  I shall  try  to  show,  of 
much  significance.  That  the  type  has  been  present  hereabouts 
for  a long  time  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  vies  with  the  Medi- 
terranean type  in  the  Basket-maker  crania.  It  still  survives 
among  the  Ute  and  Pi-Ute  and  also  among  the  Tarahumare2 
and  Pima3  of  the  Mexican  border  country. 

In  the  northeastern  area  the  primary  factor  among  the  Iro- 
quois, Lenape,  and  southern  New  England  tribes  was  the  Proto- 
Negroid.  In  the  present  area  this  type  is  of  relatively  slight 
importance.  In  the  islands  off  the  California  coast  it  is  lacking 
among  the  males  although  present  as  a small  minority  among 
the  females;  it  is  not  found  in  the  Pericue,  and  occurs  only  as 
a trace  in  the  Ute  and  Pi-Ute.  The  Basket-maker  crania,  how- 
ever, show  a contrast  to  the  more  modern  population,  in  that  the 
Proto-Negroid  type  is  present  in  large  amount  in  both  sexes. 
This  would  appear  to  indicate  that  this  type  was  at  an  early  date 
quite  prominent  in  this  portion  of  the  continent;  and  this  belief 
is  corroborated  by  the  crania  from  the  ancient  burial  caves  of 
Coahuila4  in  northern  Mexico,  which  exhibit  this  type  as  clearly 
dominant ! It  is  interesting  in  this  connection  to  find  that  cul- 
turally these  people  of  Coahuila  were  in  many  respects  closely 
allied  to  the  Basket-makers.5 

So  far  little  has  been  said  of  any  brachycephalic  factors  in 


1 Ten  Kate,  1884. 

8 Ten  Kate,  1892. 


4 Studley,  1882. 


2 Ten  Kate,  1892;  A.  M.  N.  H. 

6 Kidder,  1919;  Guernsey,  1921. 


418 


NORTH  AMERICA 


this  region.  It  would  seem  that  the  northern  section  was  dif- 
ferentiated from  the  southern  by  the  fact  that  in  the  former 
the  brachycephalic  elements  are  primarily  Alpine,  whereas  in 
the  latter  it  is  the  Palae-Alpine  which  is  of  greatest  importance. 
This  holds  true  of  the  crania  as  well  as  of  the  modern  tribes,1 
although  cranial  deformation  undoubtedly  somewhat  obscures 
the  results.  The  measurements  made  upon  the  Utes2  show  the 
predominance  of  platyrrhine,  brachycephalic  factors  there,  al- 
though the  crania  of  supposedly  ancient  date  from  the  same 
region  show  a majority  of  leptorrhine  forms.  Ancient  crania, 
however,  such  as  the  female  series  from  Basket-maker  sites, 
show,  on  the  other  hand,  Palae-Alpine  types  as  forming  the  main 
brachycephalic  factor.  We  have  thus  over  considerable  portions 
of  this  region  a modern  population  which  is  predominantly  brachy- 
cephalic, although  the  ancient  prehistoric  occupants  of  the  coun- 
try were  dolichocephalic,  paralleling  thus  the  situation  which 
we  found  among  the  Iroquois.  We  cannot  here  invoke  the  in- 
fluence of  European  intermixture  since  there  has  been  very  little 
miscegenation,  particularly  among  the  Utes.  Attention  must 
also  be  called  to  a fact  whose  significance  will  be  apparent  when 
we  come  to  discuss  the  sequence  of  racial  types  in  the  continent 
as  a whole.  This  is  the  existence  of  a moderate  factor  (ca.  17 
per  cent)  of  the  Mongoloid  type  in  the  series  of  Ute  and  Pi-Ute 
crania,  and  in  smaller  measure  in  the  Basket- maker. 

The  conclusions  which  we  are  entitled  to  draw  from  this  mass 
of  rather  tedious  detail  seem  to  be  these.  Judging  from  its  con- 
centration in  the  extreme  marginal  portions  of  the  area,  the  oldest 
stratum  of  population  was  characterized  by  the  predominance 
of  the  Proto- Australoid  type.  Also  very  early,  but  evidently 
of  later  appearance,  were  the  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  types. 
The  apparent  focus  of  the  former  was  in  the  interior,  in  southern 
Nevada  and  Utah  and  northern  Arizona,  and  since  its  influence 
was  but  slightly  felt  in  the  tip  of  Lower  California,  although 
strong  in  the  islands  off  the  California  coast,  it  is  probable  that 
this  factor  came  in  as  an  intrusion  from  the  north  and  east.  The 


1 Boas. 


2 Boas.  Ten  Kate,  1892. 


THE  SOUTHWESTERN  DOLICHOCEPHALS 


419 


Caspian  type,  on  the  other  hand,  is  concentrated  strongly  on  the 
coast,  being  here,  as  in  the  northeastern  area,  quite  definitely 
a littoral  type.  There  is  thus  reason  for  thinking  that  it  may 
represent  a coastwise  drift  from  the  northward,  later  overlaid 
and  largely  buried  by  a similar  littoral  movement  of  the  Alpine 
type,  for  which  we  have,  as  will  be  seen,  considerable  indirect 
evidence.  Lastly,  the  Proto-Negroid  type,  in  the  main  absent 
from  the  whole  coast  district  (except  for  the  puzzling  appearance 
of  it  just  north  of  San  Francisco  Bay),  but  probably  dominant 
among  the  Basket-makers  and  the  crania  from  the  Coahuila  caves, 
although  historically  very  early,  seems  not  to  have  had  a wide 
distribution,  and  tentatively  may  be  supposed  to  have  penetrated 
into  this  region  from  the  east.  An  interesting  but  rather  con- 
fusing light  is  thrown  on  this  problem  by  the  undeformed  crania 
from  the  prehistoric  strata  at  the  pueblo  of  Pecos  in  New  Mexico, 
which  I have  been  most  courteously  allowed  to  study.1  A com- 
parison of  the  crania  from  the  later  prehistoric  strata  with  those 
of  the  earlier,  appears  to  show  an  increase  in  the  proportions  of 
the  Proto-Negroid  type  both  in  the  male  and  female  series;  yet, 
although  the  males  of  the  still  more  ancient  Basket-makers  show 
a smaller  proportion  of  this  type  than  the  oldest  group  at  Pecos, 
the  females  have  the  largest  percentage  found  anywhere  or  at 
any  time  except  among  the  early  Iroquois ! 

In  one  significant  feature  there  is  a similarity  between  this 
dolichocephalic  region  in  the  southwest  of  the  continent  and 
that  in  the  northeast.  It  is  that,  so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  infer 
anything  as  to  the  lines  of  racial  drift,  in  both  regions  the  move- 
ments of  the  Caspian  type  seem  to  have  been  littoral,  whereas 
all  other  types  have  exhibited  in  general  a centrifugal  tendency, 
moving  from  the  interior  of  the  continent  in  the  one  case  north- 
east and  east,  in  the  other  southwest  and  west  toward  the  mar- 
gins. 

1 Collections  of  the  Pecos  Expedition,  Department  of  Archaeology,  Phillips  An- 
dover Academy.  . 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  CENTRAL  BRACHYCEPHALS 

The  two  areas  which  we  have  now  discussed  included  little 
more  than  a fringe  along  the  borders  of  the  continent,  and  the 
great  mass  of  the  Indian  tribes  are  comprised  in  the  third  or 
central  section,  in  which  in  general  brachycephalic  as  opposed  to 
dolichocephalic  factors  prevail.  Geographically  the  whole  of 
this  vast  area  is  divisible  into  three  broadly  contrasted  sections : 
(i)  what  may  be  called  the  Plateau  Area  comprising  the  region 
lying  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  south  of  the  Columbia 
River;  (2)  an  Appalachian  Area  including  the  whole  of  the  south- 
east of  the  continent,  and  (3)  all  the  remainder,  covering  the 
vast  plains  which  extend  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  northward 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  together  with  all  the  rugged  mountain  coun- 
try west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  north  of  the  Columbia. 
In  the  first,  both  platyrrhine  and  leptorrhine  brachycephalic 
types  are  present,  the  former  being  on  the  whole  more  impor- 
tant, and  each  holding  itself  more  or  less  aloof  from  the  other; 
in  the  second  both  are  also  present,  but  so  thoroughly  intermixed 
that  neither  can  be  said  to  be  in  the  lead;  in  the  third  the 
leptorrhine  forms  are  overwhelmingly  in  the  majority  almost 
everywhere.  In  order  to  bring  out  the  essential  facts,  we  must 
consider  each  of  these  three  areas  somewhat  in  detail. 

What  has  been  called  the  Plateau  Area  covers  the  greater 
part  of  California,  Oregon,  Nevada,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Utah, 
western  Colorado,  and  Wyoming.  Much  of  this  region  is,  an- 
thropologically speaking,  one  of  the  most  obscure  and  least  known 
portions  of  the  continent,  since  except  for  its  borders,  we  possess 
very  little  data  on  either  crania  or  the  living  tribes.  Further- 
more, in  much  of  the  west  and  south,  the  practice  of  artificial 
cranial  deformation  renders  the  determination  of  the  real  cranial 
characteristics  difficult  and  uncertain.  This  much,  however, 

420 


THE  CENTRAL  BRACHYCEPHALS 


421 


seems  clear:  the  Shoshoni,  Bannock,  and  Ute  tribes,1  who  occupy 
the  whole  eastern  frontier  of  the  area,  are  characterized  by  a pre- 
dominance of  brachy cephalic,  platyrrhine  factors,  as  are  prob- 
ably also  the  Navaho,1  Zuni,1  all  the  tribes  of  Yuman2  stock, 
the  Shoshonean  tribes  of  southern  California,3  together  with  the 
Chumash  and  Salinan  peoples  of  the  adjacent  coast.4  No  mea- 
surements are  available  from  the  Nevada  tribes,  but  from  the 
fact  that  among  the  Maidu,5  who  were  their  western  neighbors 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada  region  of  northern  California,  the  brachy- 
cephalic,  platyrrhine  factors  strongly  prevailed,  it  seems  prob- 
able that  the  Paviotso  at  least,  and  perhaps  the  Pi-Ute,  are  of 
the  same  type.  The  Papago6  and  Pima6  may  tentatively  be  added 
to  the  list  of  tribes  with  these  characteristics,  although  the  prac- 
tice of  cranial  deformation  makes  the  determination  of  their 
type  doubtful.  The  portraits  given  on  Plate  XXXV,  Figs.  3 
and  4,  and  Plate  XXXVI,  Fig.  1,  may  be  taken  as  representa- 
tive of  this  group. 

Although  we  have  thus  strong  grounds  for  believing  that 
the  great  majority  of  the  modern  tribes  of  this  whole  area  show 
a predominance  of  broad-nosed,  brachycephalic  types,  we  can- 
not, because  of  the  absence  of  adequate  cranial  material,  de- 
termine with  certainty  which  of  the  two  such  types  is  mainly 
represented.  From  the  fact,  however,  that,  in  the  few  Ute  and 
Pi-Ute  crania  which  we  have,  a rather  notable  Mongoloid  ele- 
ment appears,  we  may  conclude  that,  although  the  major  factor 
is  undoubtedly  the  Palae-Alpine,  it  is  probably  accompanied  by 
a minority  of  the  Mongoloid. 

For  California  and  Oregon  we  can,  in  the  absence  of  adequate 
material,  only  hazard  the  suggestion  that  dolichocephalic  ele- 
ments are  probably  strongly  in  evidence,  and  that  in  all  proba- 
bility the  Alpine  type,  which  has,  as  I shall  try  to  show,  moved 
both  westward  down  the  Columbia  and  southward  along  the 
coast  to  and  beyond  Puget  Sound,  has  made  its  influence  strongly 
felt  as  far  south  as  the  Sacramento  Valley. 

1 Boas.  2 Boas;  Ten  Kate,  1892.  3 Boas,  1896. 

4 A.  M.  N.  H.  6 Boas,  1905.  6 Ten  Kate,  1892. 


422 


NORTH  AMERICA 


The  leptorrhine,  brachycephalic  elements  are  almost  wholly 
lacking  among  the  bulk  of  the  Shoshonean  tribes,  but  do  appear 
in  the  Pueblo  peoples1  and  the  Navaho.1  Light  is  thrown  on  their 
history  by  the  prehistoric  data  available  from  the  Basket-makers2 
and  the  crania  from  Pecos.3  In  the  former  and  probably  most 
archaic  material  these  factors  seem  to  be  entirely  absent,  al- 
though the  platyrrhine  forms  are  present  in  considerable  propor- 
tions. In  the  lower  strata  at  Pecos,  representing  the  earliest 
population  at  this  site,  the  Alpine  type  is  present,  but  only  in 
small  amount  (ca.  15  per  cent);  in  the  upper  but  still  prehistoric 
layers  the  proportion  rises  to  nearly  40  per  cent,  and  this  type 
becomes  dominant.  The  inference  from  these  facts  would  seem 
to  be  that  in  very  early  prehistoric  times  the  Alpine  type  was 
unknown  in  this  area;  that  it  had  made  its  way  in  (presumably 
from  the  eastward)  by  the  time  the  earliest  settlement  was  made 
at  Pecos,  and  increased  in  strength  there  very  largely  in  later 
times,  extending  its  influence  westward  in  ever  decreasing  strength 
as  far  as  the  coast.  A portrait  of  an  Apache  as  an  example  of 
this  mixed  Palse-Alpine  and  Alpine  types  is  given  on  Plate 
XXXVI,  Fig.  2. 

Summarizing  the  results  of  our  investigation  of  this  region, 
it  may  be  said  that  it  appears  to  constitute  an  island,  as  it  were, 
of  platyrrhine,  brachycephalic  peoples,  mainly  of  Palae-Alpine 
type,  in  which  are  embedded  some  remnants  of  the  older  doli- 
chocephalic types  and  around  which  the  later-coming  Alpine 
peoples  have  flowed  both  on  the  north  and  the  south,  toward 
the  Pacific  coast.  Or,  to  put  the  matter  a little  differently,  we 
have  in  this  area  three  successive  racial  strata,  shingling  one  over 
the  other  from  northeast  to  southwest,  of  which  the  southwestern 
dolichocephals  are  the  oldest,  the  Palae-Alpines  the  intermediate, 
and  the  Alpine  type  the  latest  layers. 

A word  may  be  added  in  regard  to  stature.  All  the  Shosho- 
nean tribes,  together  with  the  Maidu  at  least  of  the  Californian 
peoples,  i.  e.,  the  central  core  mainlv  of  Palse-Alpine  type,  have 

1 Boas.  2P.  M.;  A.  M.  N.  H. 

3 Collections  of  the  Pecos  Expedition,  Phillips  Andover  Academy. 


Fig.  i.  Bannock. 


Fig.  2.  Apache. 


© F.  A.  Rinehart,  Omaha 

Fig.  4.  Blackfoot. 

XXXVI. 


Fig.  3.  Thompson  River.  (Salish). 

PLATE 


\ 


? 


THE  CENTRAL  BRACHYCEPHALS 


423 


statures  varying  in  the  average  between  164  and  168  cm.  and 
are,  with  the  exception  of  the  dolichocephalic  Yuki  of  the  north- 
ern California  coast  ranges  and  the  Pueblo  peoples,  the  shortest 
in  the  region.  To  the  southwest,  the  Yuman  and  Piman  tribes 
are  taller,  varying  from  169  to  172  or  over,  in  average  height. 
To  the  southeast,  the  Navaho1  and  Apache1  also  tend  toward 
taller  statures,  the  former  averaging  nearly  169  cm.,  while  the 
latter  rise  above  170  cm.  To  the  north,  the  Columbia  River 
tribes  show  a stature  in  general  above  the  Shoshonean  group, 
and  the  same  holds  true  even  more  strikingly  toward  the  east- 
ward among  the  tribes  of  the  Plains.  Thus,  we  may  say  that 
on  the  whole  the  taller  statures  seem  to  be  associated  with  the 
later  Alpine  peoples.  The  tall  stature  of  the  Yuman  and  Piman 
tribes,  however,  appears  to  rest  on  some  other  and  as  yet  uncer- 
tain basis. 

The  third  section  of  the  great  brachycephalic  area,  which 
geographically  is  contiguous  to  the  one  just  described,  covers 
an  enormous  territory.  Although  for  practically  the  whole  of 
Alaska  and  the  Canadian  Northwest,  together  with  the  region 
about  Hudson  Bay,  we  as  yet  possess  few  or  no  data  of  any 
kind,  it  seems  virtually  certain  that  the  peoples  of  this  vast  region, 
the  whole  of  the  Plains  and  the  area  north  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
are  to  be  regarded  as  forming  essentially  one  great  group,  char- 
acterized by  the  predominance  of  the  Alpine  type.  From  the 
linguistic  point  of  view,  it  thus  included  the  tribes  belonging  to 
the  Athabascan,  Tlingit,  Haida,  Tsimshian,  Wakashan,  Salishan 
and  Shahaptian  stocks;  all  the  Plains  tribes  of  the  Siouan  and 
Algonkian  stocks;  the  Kiowan  and  Caddoan  stocks;  and  all  the 
Algonkian  tribes  north  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence. 

In  dealing  with  so  large  an  area  and  with  so  many  tribes, 
it  will  be  convenient  to  consider  the  northern  and  northwestern 
portion  separately  from  the  rest,  since  this  section  presents  cer- 
tain special  features  of  its  own.  The  first  point  to  be  noted  is 
that,  although  throughout  the  whole  of  this  subsection  the  nar- 
row-nosed, brachycephalic  factors  prevail,  there  is  everywhere 

1 Boas, 


424 


NORTH  AMERICA 


a considerable,  in  some  cases  a large,  broad-nosed  element  also 
present.  It  is  least  marked  in  the  Wakashan1  tribes,  of  varying, 
but  generally  notable  prominence  in  the  Salish2  group,  and  most 
strongly  represented  in  the  Tsimshian3  and  Haida4  of  the  north- 
west coast.  If  we  may  judge  by  the  very  small  series  of  measure- 
ments available,  it  is  even  dominant  in  the  Haida.  I believe 
that  the  strength  of  the  platyrrhine,  brachycephalic  factors  here 
and  their  relative  absence  in  the  Plains  is  very  significant,  since 
this  area  of  British  Columbia  is  the  northerly  continuation  of 
the  region  toward  the  south  occupied  mainly  by  Shoshonean 
tribes,  among  whom  the  Palae-Alpine  type  was  dominant.  That 
is  to  say,  it  would  seem  that  we  had  some  reason  to  believe  that 
the  older,  underlying  population  of  this  British  Columbia  and 
Northwest  Coast  region  was  of  the  Palae-Alpine  type  as  in  the 
country  to  the  south,  but  that  here  it  has  been  overlain  from 
the  east  and  north  by  a dominating  stratum  of  Alpine  type.  In 
this  connection  it  may  be  observed  that  the  hypothetically  older 
Palae-Alpine  type  has  survived  most  notably  in  the  Haida  in  the 
Queen  Charlotte  Islands,  one  of  the  most  isolated  marginal  spots. 

A second  group  of  facts  in  relation  to  this  region  may  now 
be  noted,  i.  e.,  that,  although  the  Salishan  tribes  and  the  Tlingit5 
appear  to  have  no  appreciable  dolichocephalic  factors,  the  Wa- 
kashan and  Kootenay6  on  the  west  and  east  of  the  former,  and 
the  Haida  and  Tsimshian  lying  between  the  Salish  and  the  Tlin- 
git show  noteworthy  dolichocephalic  elements.  For  the  Koote- 
nay the  data  are  adequate,  and  indicate  that  in  the  Lower 
Kootenay  the  leptorrhine,  dolichocephalic  factors  are  actually 
in  the  majority.  For  the  Wakashan  tribes  and  the  area  occupied 
by  them,  the  material  is  very  limited,  but  the  strength  of  these 
same  factors  in  the  undeformed  crania  from  southern  Vancouver 
Island  would  seem  to  confirm  the  few  measurements  on  the 
living.  In  this  connection  the  dominance  of  the  same  characters 
in  the  crania  from  the  lower  strata  in  the  shell-heaps  of  the  Fraser 

2 Boas,  1891,  1895,  1898. 

4 Boas,  1891,  1898. 

0 Chamberlain,  1892. 


1 Boas,  1895. 

3 Boas,  1889,  1895,  1898. 

8 Fridolin,  1899;  Tarenetsky,  1900. 


THE  CENTRAL  BRACHYCEPHALS 


425 


River  indicate  the  antiquity  of  this  type  in  the  region.  In  the 
case  of  the  Haida  and  Tsimshian  the  dolichocephalic  factor  is 
not  so  strong,  but  it  is  still  of  the  leptorrhine  variety.  Since  now 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  three  northern  stocks,  the  Tlin- 
git,  Haida,  and  Tsimshian,  have  moved  westward  from  the  in- 
terior to  the  coast,  and  even  clearer  evidence  that  the  Salishan 
tribes  have  done  likewise,  whereas  the  Wakashan,  who  show 
next  to  the  Kootenay  the  largest  dolichocephalic  factor  of  all, 
appear  to  be  very  ancient  residents  of  the  coast,  the  suggestion 
may  be  put  forward  that  the  whole  of  the  northwest  coast  from 
Puget  Sound  north  to  the  Copper  River  in  Alaska  was  formerly 
occupied  by  tribes  characterized  by  the  predominance  of  lep- 
torrhine, dolichocephalic  types.  Later,  a series  of  brachyce- 
phalic  peoples,  at  first  in  majority  Palae-Alpine,  later  primarily 
of  Alpine  type,  pressed  westward  to  the  coast,  largely  obliterating 
the  former  dolichocephalic  population,  which  survived  only  as 
a minority.  The  actual  process  seems  visible  in  the  Fraser  River 
shell-heaps,  where  the  dolichocephalic  type  present  in  the  lower 
strata  is  not  found  in  the  upper,  in  which  only  brachycephalic 
forms  appear.1  An  example  of  the  Salish  group  representing 
the  mixed  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  peoples  of  this  region  is 
given  on  Plate  XXXVI,  Fig.  3. 

If  these  views  are  correct,  we  should  then  be  able  to  make 
instructive  comparison  with  the  area  to  the  south.  In  both  areas 
the  older  dolichocephalic  factors  are  in  greatest  abundance  in 
the  extreme  western  and  southwestern  marginal  districts,  where 
they  have  survived  more  or  less  recognizably  in  comparative 
isolation.  In  both  areas  the  next  succeeding  stratum  is  char- 
acterized by  brachycephalic,  platyrrhine  types,  but,  whereas  in 
the  south  the  relatively  unfavorable  environment  and  great 
width  of  the  arid  plateaus  saved  a large  nucleus  of  these  early 
brachycephalic  peoples  from  being  overwhelmed  and  submerged 
by  the  later-coming  Alpine  peoples  who  flowed  around  them  on 
all  sides;  in  the  north,  where  the  plateau  and  mountain  region  is 
greatly  narrowed,  the  Alpine  stream  penetrated  much  more 

1 Boas,  1903. 


426 


NORTH  AMERICA 


readily  and  completely,  and  thus  came  actually  to  dominate 
everywhere  except  in  the  more  remote  and  isolated  islands. 

Before  turning  to  the  great  Plains  region  brief  reference  must 
be  made  to  two  other  aspects  of  the  problem.  The  distribution 
of  stature  in  the  area  just  discussed  is  in  outline  as  follows.  The 
Tlingit,  Haida,  and  Tsimshian  form  a group  characterized  by 
relatively  tall  stature,  ranging  from  173  cm.  in  the  case  of  the 
first  to  169  cm.  in  the  Tsimshian.  The  Wakashan  tribes  are 
markedly  shorter,  averaging  164  cm.,  or  slightly  under  medium 
stature.  Along  the  extreme  northwest  border  of  their  range  they 
are  even  shorter  still.  The  decrease  in  stature  attains  its  maxi- 
mum in  the  Fraser  delta  and  Harrison  Lake  tribes,  the  latter 
having  an  average  of  only  158  cm.,  which  with  their  extreme 
brachycephaly  marks  them  as  a special  and  peculiarly  localized 
group.  The  other  Salishan  tribes  increase  in  stature  quite  regu- 
larly from  west  to  east,  reaching  an  average  of  167-168  cm.  among 
the  Shuswap  and  Okanagan.  The  Athabascan  tribes  of  the  in- 
terior of  British  Columbia  are,  on  the  other  hand,  shorter,  and 
are  substantially  similar  in  this  respect  to  the  Wakashan.  While 
not  completely  accordant  in  every  locality,  still  this  distribution 
of  statures  agrees  broadly  with  the  evidence  derived  from  the 
distribution  of  cranial  types,  i.  e .,  that  the  taller  northern  tribes 
represent  a westward  movement  of  the  tall  tribes  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains;  the  diminution  in  stature  of  the  predomi- 
nantly Alpine  Salish  from  east  to  west  is  due  to  the  progressively 
increasing  mixture  with  the  preceding  and  shorter  Palse-Alpine 
peoples;  while  the  short  stature  of  the  Wakashan  peoples  repre- 
sents in  so  far  the  original  dolichocephalic  stratum.  The  ex- 
treme shortness  of  the  Harrison  Lake  people  is  for  the  moment 
unexplained,  but  I might  suggest  that' it  may  be  due  to  an  iso- 
lated remnant  of  the  Mongoloid  type,  which  the  world  over  is 
characterized  by  extremely  *short  stature.  As  we  possess  no 
cranial  material  from  this  group,  however,  the  suggestion  cannot 
be  substantiated. 

The  vast  area  included  in  the  central  or  Plains  section  of 
the  brachycephalic  region,  was  occupied  in  historic  times  in  the 


THE  CENTRAL  BRACHYCEPHALS 


427 


main  by  tribes  belonging  to  four  great  linguistic  stocks,  the  Atha- 
bascan, Algonkian,  Siouan,  and  Caddoan.  In  the  southern  Plains 
the  Comanche,  an  outlier  of  the  Shoshonean  stock,  the  Kiowa, 
and  the  small  group  of  the  Tonkawa  complete  the  list.  Of  the 
four  great  stocks,  only  the  Siouan  tribes  occupy  a continuous 
area.  Of  the  northern  Athabascan  tribes,  who  held  the  greater 
part  of  the  Canadian  Plains  and  the  whole  of  the  interior  of 
Alaska,  our  knowledge  is  extremely  meagre,  and  we  may  there- 
fore turn  first  to  the  rest  of  the  region,  in  regard  to  which  we 
shall  be  able  to  draw  conclusions  of  some  certainty.1 

Reference  to  the  map  given  on  Plate  XXXIII  shows  the  strik- 
ing fact  that  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  from  about  550  N. 
Latitude  southward  to  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  and 
down  through  the  Plains  almost  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  his- 
toric tribes  were  characterized  by  the  strong  and  rather  even 
dominance  of  brachycephalic,  leptorrhine  factors  everywhere 
except  in  the  case  of  (1)  the  Mandan  and  Arikara;  (2)  the  Arapaho 
and  Cheyenne,  and  (3)  somewhat  less  certainly  in  the  Sarcee,  the 
Tunica  and  the  southern  Siouan  tribes,  such  as  the  Kwapa,  Kan- 
sas and  Missouri.  So  far  then  as  this  predominance  of  brachy- 
cephalic, leptorrhine  elements  is  concerned,  there  is  in  general 
a considerable  uniformity  among  most  of  the  Plains  tribes  with- 
out regard  to  their  linguistic  affiliations.  If  the  matter  be  looked 
into  more  in  detail,  however,  significant  differences  begin  to  ap- 
pear. 

If  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  factor  of  secondary  importance 
present  in  each  case,  the  whole  series  of  tribes  having  the  brachy- 
cephalic, leptorrhine  types  predominant  falls  into  three  well- 
marked  groups,  characterized  respectively  by  the  presence  of 
strong  secondary  elements  of  broad-nosed  brachycephalic  or  of 
broad  or  narrow  nosed  dolichocephalic  types.  The  first  group, 
that  in  which  the  secondary  element  is  a platyrrhine,  brachy- 
cephalic factor,  comprises  the  Western  Ojibwa,  the  Ponca,  and 
perhaps  also  the  Omaha,  the  Kiowa,  the  Caddo,  and  the  Ton- 
kawa. This  underlying  secondary  element  seems  to  be  attrib- 

1 For  all  this  region  the  data  on  the  living  are  derived  from  Boas. 


428 


NORTH  AMERICA 


utable  to  three  distinct  sources:  in  the  Ojibwa  and  Ponca,  to 
the  strength  of  this  factor  which,  as  will  be  shown  presently, 
formerly  characterized  the  area  west  of  Lake  Michigan;  in  the 
case  of  the  Caddo  and  Tonkawa,  to  the  earlier  probable  domi- 
nance of  this  type  in  the  whole  of  the  southern  plains;  and  for 
the  Kiowa,  who  have  apparently  migrated  to  their  historic  sites 
from  the  mountain  region  in  Wyoming  or  Montana,  to  the  stra- 
tum of  Palae-Alpine  character  which  has  been  shown  to  have 
been  formerly  strong  in  that  region.  The  Ojibwa  and  Ponca 
are  further  linked  together  by  the  minority  factor  of  Proto-Aus- 
traloid or  Proto-Negroid  type  which  they  possess,  factors  present 
in  strength,  as  already  pointed  out,  among  the  Iroquois  and  south- 
ern New  England  Algonkian  tribes.  The  Kiowa,  Caddo,  and 
Tonkawa,  on  the  other  hand,  are  in  their  turn  linked  together  by 
a minority  of  Caspian  or  Mediterranean  type  (leptorrhine,  doli- 
chocephalic), the  significance  of  which  will  become  apparent  later. 

Since  the  material  on  which  the  foregoing  analysis  is  based 
is  wholly  made  up  of  measurements  taken  on  the  living,  it  has 
been  impossible  to  determine  with  accuracy  the  types  involved. 
Cranial  data  are,  however,  scanty  and  are  practically  confined 
to  the  Ojibwa1  and  the  Ponca.1  In  the  main  the  two  series  cor- 
roborate the  conclusions  based  on  the  measurements  of  the  liv- 
ing, and  appear,  furthermore,  to  establish  two  points  of  some 
importance.  These  are  that  the  bulk  of  the  platyrrhine,  brachy- 
cephalic  factors,  present  in  these  two  tribes  at  least,  is  due  to 
the  Mongoloid  type,  and  that  the  Ojibwa  and  Ponca  differ  from 
each  other  in  that  in  the  former  the  dominant  brachycephalic 
element  is  primarily  Alpine,  whereas  in  the  latter  it  is  of  the  Ural 
type.  Such  fragmentary  data  as  are  available  for  the  Kiowa,2 
Caddo,3  and  Tonkawa4  seem  to  corroborate  their  forming  a 
group  in  contrast  with  the  Ojibwa  and  Ponca,  for  where  these 
latter  have  a Mongoloid  factor  the  three  former  tribes  have 
instead  the  Pake-Alpine.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  the  affilia- 
tions of  the  Kiowa,  Caddo,  and  Tonkawa  are  on  the  whole  with 
the  region  toward  the  south  and  west,  whereas  the  Ojibwa  and 
1 U.  S.  N.  M.  2 Otis,  1876.  3 Allen,  1896;  P.  A.  N.  S.  ‘Otis,  op.  cit. 


THE  CENTRAL  BRACHYCEPHALS 


429 


Ponca  are  related  more  closely  to  the  tribes  south  and  east  of 
the  Great  Lakes. 

The  second  group  which  may  be  distinguished  is  that  in  which 
the  factor  of  secondary  importance  is  a platyrrhine,  dolicho- 
cephalic one.  In  extent  of  area  covered  it  is  larger  than  the 
first,  and  includes  all  the  remaining  Algonkian  tribes  of  this  sec- 
tion (i.  e.,  Montagnais,  Ottawa,  Missisauga,  Eastern  Ojibwa, 
Blackfoot,  Arapaho,  and  Cheyenne);  the  Mandan  and  Hidatsa 
of  the  Siouan  stock,  together  with  the  Caddoan  Ankara  and 
Pawnee.  As  in  the  previous  group,  if  we  take  into  account  the 
factor  which  is  third  in  importance,  the  tribes  listed  fall  into 
two  divisions,  of  which  one,  comprising  the  Blackfoot,  Arapaho, 
Cheyenne,  and  Mandan,  has  a dolichocephalic,  leptorrhine 
type;  the  other,  including  the  remaining  four  Algonkian  tribes, 
the  Hidatsa,  and  the  two  Caddoan  tribes,  has  on  the  contrary 
a brachycephalic,  platyrrhine  type.  If  this  situation  be  com- 
pared with  that  in  the  group  just  discussed,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  brachycephalic,  platyrrhine  element,  which  was  of  secondary 
importance  in  the  first  group  as  a whole,  becomes  the  tertiary 
element  in  the  majority  of  the  tribes  of  the  present  group,  and 
that  the  presence  of  a dolichocephalic,  leptorrhine  factor  among 
the  Blackfoot,  Arapaho,  Cheyenne,  and  Mandan  connects  them 
with  the  Kiowa,  Caddo,  and  Tonkawa.  The  portrait  of  a Black- 
foot given  on  Plate  XXXVI,  Fig.  4,  may  be  taken  as  an  example 
of  this  group. 

From  these  facts  two  conclusions  of  real  significance  seem 
to  follow.  First,  that  the  three  Algonkian  tribes  of  the  Plains, 
i.  the  Blackfoot,  Arapaho,  and  Cheyenne,  who  are  linguisti- 
cally rather  widely  divergent  from  the  other  members  of  the 
stock,  are  also  differentiated  from  them  physically.  Second, 
that  the  Mandan,  who  linguistically  stand  somewhat  apart  from 
the  other  Siouan  tribes,  are  more  closely  allied  physically  to  the 
Plains  Algonkian  tribes  than  to  the  neighboring  groups  of  the 
Siouan  stock.  Rather  brief  cranial  series  are  available  for  the 
Blackfoot,1  Cheyenne,2  and  Hidatsa.1  These  show  in  the  case 

‘U.  S.  N.  M.  *U.  S.  N.  M.;  P.  M. 


430 


NORTH  AMERICA 


of  the  Cheyenne  and  Hidatsa  close  similarity  with  the  measure- 
ments on  the  living;  for  the  Blackfoot,  however,  the  crania  in- 
dicate not  a brachycephalic  but  a considerable  dolichocephalic 
majority.  Leaving  the  significance  of  this  aside  for  the  moment, 
the  cranial  data  make  it  clear  that  the  primary  brachycephalic 
factor  is,  in  all  the  tribes,  the  Alpine  type;  that  the  most  im- 
portant dolichocephalic  element  present  is  the  Proto- Australoid; 
that  there  is  a minority  here  of  the  Palae- Alpine  type,  in  contrast 
with  the  Mongoloid,  which  was  that  most  prominent  in  the  case 
of  the  Ojibwa  and  Ponca;  and  lastly,  that  the  dolichocephalic 
element  which  particularly  characterizes  the  Algonkian  tribes  of 
the  Plains,  i.  e.,  the  Blackfoot,  Arapaho,  and  Cheyenne,  and  prob- 
ably also  the  Mandan,  is  the  Mediterranean.  From  all  of  which 
we  may  conclude  that  the  presence  of  the  Proto- Australoid  fac- 
tor serves  in  some  way  to  link  these  tribes  with  the  Iroquois, 
Lenape,  and  southern  New  England  Algonkian  tribes,  among 
whom  it  was  well  represented;  and  that  the  Algonkian  tribes 
of  the  Plains  are,  by  virtue  of  their  considerable  Mediterranean 
factor,  more  closely  related  perhaps  to  the  tribes  of  this  stock 
in  the  Maritime  Provinces  and  northern  New  England  than  to 
those  farther  to  the  south. 

The  third  group  may  be  more  briefly  dismissed.  Character- 
ized by  the  rise  of  the  dolichocephalic,  leptorrhine  factors  to 
second  place,  it  includes  the  Crow  and  the  various  tribes  of  the 
Dakota  or  Sioux.  In  the  strength  of  the  brachycephalic,  lep- 
torrhine element  these  tribes  exceed  the  bulk  of  all  the  others 
in  this  whole  area,  the  Crow  in  fact  surpassing  all  other  tribes 
for  which  I have  been  able  to  secure  data,  except  the  Salish  Bil- 
qula,  of  the  British  Columbia  coast.  Cranial  material  is  avail- 
able only  for  the  Sioux,1  and  shows  first  that  the  primary  brachy- 
cephalic element  is  the  Alpine;  second  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Plains  Algonkian  tribes,  the  Mediterranean  type  is  a factor  of 
importance;  and  thirdly  that  the  largest  dolichocephalic  factor 
as  shown  by  the  crania  is  the  Proto-Australoid,  and  that  this  is 
actually  dominant,  in  contrast  to  the  evidence  given  by  the  mea- 

1 U.  S.  N.  M. 


THE  CENTRAL  BRACHYCEPHALS 


431 


surements  on  the  living,  which  showed  the  Alpine  to  be  in  the 
majority.  Now  precisely  the  same  conditions  prevailed  in  the 
case  of  the  Blackfoot,  and  we  may  therefore  ask  whether  the 
phenomenon  may  not  be  due  in  both  cases  to  similar  causes. 
For  the  Sioux,  at  least,  a reasonable  explanation  is  suggested,  if 
we  divide  the  whole  series  into  a Western  and  an  Eastern  group, 
the  former  including  the  Teton  Sioux,  the  latter  the  Sisseton, 
Wahpeton,  and  Yankton  Sioux.  The  two  series  appear  to  be 
quite  divergent,  the  Western  showing  a predominance  of  Alpine 
elements,  as  in  the  case  of  the  measurements  on  the  living  (who 
were,  indeed,  very  largely  of  the  Teton  group),  and  according 
with  the  Hidatsa,  Ankara,  Pawnee,  Ojibwa,  etc.;  whereas  the 
Eastern  series  is  characterized  by  a majority  of  dolichocephalic 
factors,  mainly  Mediterranean  and  Proto-Australoid,  and  thus 
has  affiliations  with  the  prehistoric  population  of  the  Ohio  val- 
ley, the  Huron,  and  the  extreme  northeastern  Algonkian  tribes. 
Portraits  illustrating  the  types  found  among  the  Crow  and 
Sioux  are  given  on  Plate  XXXVII,  Figs,  i and  2. 

The  apparent  divergence  of  the  crania  thus  from  the  mea- 
surements made  on  the  living  is  not  a real  one,  but  is  due  to  the 
inclusion  of  the  crania  of  the  Eastern  Sioux  from  whom  no  series 
of  measurements  on  the  living  are  available.  A similar  explana- 
tion of  the  divergence  in  the  case  of  the  Blackfoot  hardly  seems 
possible.  Since,  however,  the  female  Blackfoot  crania  agree 
with  the  living  series  in  having  a preponderance  of  Alpine  fac- 
tors, and  since  the  male  series  is  small  in  numbers  and  the  excess 
of  dolichocephalic  elements  slight,  it  seems  possible  that  it  is 
not  really  significant,  and  that  a larger  series  would  more  ex- 
actly parallel  the  results  obtained  from  the  living. 

From  the  standpoint  of  stature,  all  the  Plains  tribes  are  to 
be  classed  as  tall,  the  average  ranging  from  1 7 1 to  174  cm.  They 
thus  considerably  surpass  the  British  Columbia  and  Northwest 
Coast  peoples,  as  well  as  all  those  of  the  southwestern  dolicho- 
cephalic area  except  the  Yuman  and  Piman  tribes. 

All  that  has  been  said  hitherto  of  the  physical  types  in  the 
Plains  area  has  had  reference  to  the  historic  tribes.  Unfortu- 


432 


NORTH  AMERICA 


nately,  we  are  not  yet  in  a position  to  throw  much  light  on  the 
matter  from  older  materials  derived  from  archaeological  investi- 
gations, since  for  this  whole  region  satisfactory  data  of  this  sort 
are  largely  lacking.  One  or  two  indications  of  value,  however, 
may  be  gathered  from  the  materials  at  hand.  In  the  first  place, 
it  seems  to  be  clear,  from  the  rather  random  excavations  of 
mounds  and  burial  sites  thus  far  made,  that  these  are  attributable 
to  peoples  of  more  than  a single  type.  Some  sites,  such  as  the 
Wallace  Mound  in  Nebraska,  have  yielded  crania  exclusively  or 
almost  exclusively  brachycephalic  and  in  the  main  of  the  Palae- 
Alpine  type;  others  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  such  as  Ft.  Lisa, 
contain  crania  which  are  all  dolichocephalic.1  These  differences 
in  physical  type  are  paralleled  by  differences  in  culture  and  we 
are  almost  forced  to  conclude  that  they  represent  successive 
occupations  of  the  same  area  by  peoples  of  contrasted  type. 
Further  examples  of  this  sort  are  to  be  found  in  the  crania  from 
mounds  in  the  Red  River  valley  in  North  Dakota  and  Manitoba,2 
which  show  a very  large  preponderance  of  dolichocephalic  fac- 
tors, whereas  the  known  historic  tribes  in  the  same  region  all 
had  a majority  of  brachycephalic  forms. 

Unfortunately  the  scientific  archaeological  investigation  of 
the  Plains  area  has  not  yet  progressed  far  enough  to  make  it 
possible  to  arrange  the  various  sites  in  any  kind  of  chronological 
sequence,  so  that  we  have  as  a rule  no  means  of  knowing  which 
is  the  older  and  which  the  later  of  the  several  types.  All  that  it 
seems  possible  to  say  at  present  is  that,  wherever  in  the  northern 
and  eastern  Plains  we  do  get  any  indication  at  all  of  sequence, 
the  earlier  sites  usually  show  the  more  dolichocephalic  forms. 
The  published  data  are  too  meagre  and  imperfect  to  enable  us 
to  determine  the  actual  types.  While  it  would  be  in  the  last 
degree  imprudent  to  attempt  to  build  any  valid  conclusions  upon 
a single  skull,  it  might  be  pointed  out  in  this  connection  that 
what  is  probably  the  most  ancient  skull  yet  found  in  the  whole 
region,  the  Lansing  Skull  from  Kansas,3  is  clearly  long-headed. 

1 Poynter,  1915.  2 Montgomery,  1906,  1908;  Russell,  F.,  1898. 

3 Hrdlicka,  1907. 


Fig.  3.  Chickasaw. 


PLATE  XXXVII. 


Fig.  4.  Aztec. 


) t\  A.  Rinehart,  Omaha 

Fig.  1.  Crow. 


Fig.  2.  Sioux. 


/ 


THE  CENTRAL  BRACHYCEPHALS 


433 


For  the  southern  portion  of  the  Plains,  the  data  are  meagre 
and  conflicting.  The  crania  from  central  and  southeastern  Mis- 
souri1 are  unfortunately  in  such  damaged  condition  that  de- 
termination of  their  type  is  impossible.  All  that  can  be  said 
is  that  dolichocephalic  forms  seem  to  prevail.  In  Arkansas,2 
on  the  other  hand,  the  few  undeformed  crania  obtained  seem 
to  show  that,  whereas  in  Arkansas  and  Jefferson  Counties  the 
Alpine  type  was  in  the  majority,  in  Union  County  the  Palae- 
Alpine  alone  occurs.  In  northern  Louisiana,2  in  Morehouse, 
Ouachita,  Caldwell,  and  Franklin  Counties,  these  two  types  are 
thoroughly  blended  so  that  neither  prevails. 

With  strong  emphasis  upon  the  tentative  character  of  the 
suggestion,  it  may  be  said  that  at  least  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Mis- 
souri River  and  in  the  region  east  of  it  the  population  has  ap- 
parently changed  from  one  which  was  predominantly  dolicho- 
cephalic to  one  that  in  historic  times  has  been  as  predominantly 
brachy cephalic.  With  this  may  be  coupled  the  fact  already 
noted  in  the  case  of  the  Sioux,  where,  in  the  Teton  who  have 
moved  from  the  eastern  to  the  western  margin  of  the  Plains, 
the  westward  movement  was  associated  with  a similar  reversal, 
such  that  a former  majority  of  dolichocephalic  factors  is  ex- 
changed for  one  of  brachycephalic  elements.  All  of  which  fur- 
thermore suggests  that  the  Plains  have  in  some  way  been,  as  it 
were,  a radiant  centre  for  brachycephalic  factors,  primarily  of 
of  the  Alpine  type,  whose  influence  has  spread  to  the  east  and 
southeast  among  peoples  more  markedly  of  dolichocephalic  type. 

We  may  now  turn  to  the  third  and  last  section  of  the  North 
American  area  in  which  brachycephalic  factors  were  predomi- 
nant, i.  e.,  the  region  from  the  Ohio  valley  south  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  data  for  this 
section  are  very  meagre,  and  its  consideration  may,  therefore, 
be  brief.  When  first  known  to  Europeans  it  was  occupied  by 
tribes  belonging  in  the  main  to  four  stocks,  the  Algonkian,  Siouan, 
Iroquoian  and  Muskogean.  Of  these  the  first  were  mainly  in 
the  Ohio  valley,  the  Siouan  tribes  held  the  middle  Alleghanies, 

1 Hrdlicka,  1910.  2 Hrdlicka,  1908,  1909. 


434 


NORTH  AMERICA 


while  the  southern  portion  of  the  range  was  occupied  by  the  Iro- 
quoian  Cherokee.  Northern  Florida  and  most  of  the  area  of  the 
Gulf  States  were  in  the  control  of  Muskogean  tribes. 

Except  for  the  Muskogean  tribes,  our  knowledge  of  the  physi- 
cal characters  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  whole  southeastern  por- 
tion of  the  continent  is  derived  entirely  from  archaeological 
materials,  and  these  are  in  large  measure  of  doubtful  value  owing 
to  the  wide  prevalence  of  artifical  cranial  deformation.  Turning 
our  attention  to  these  Muskogean  peoples  first,  it  appears  that, 
although  the  Chickasaw,  Choctaw,  and  Creeks  all  show  a large 
predominance  of  brachycephalic  factors,  these  are  Alpine  in  the 
case  of  the  Choctaw  but  Palae-Alpine  in  the  other  two  tribes. 
If  this  difference,  as  found  among  the  tribes  now  for  many  years 
living  in  Oklahoma,  actually  represents  the  conditions  in  their 
former  home,  it  would  seem  to  indicate  that  there  had  been  an 
increase  in  the  Alpine  factor  in  a general  way  from  east  to  west, 
with  a parallel  concentration  of  the  Palae-Alpine  type  toward 
the  Atlantic  coast.  The  dolichocephalic  minority  seems  to  be 
in  the  main  of  the  narrow-nosed  types,  and  these  are  strongest 
among  the  Chickasaw  who  occupy  the  northwestern  portion  of 
the  Muskogean  territory.  A Chickasaw  portrait  is  given  on  Plate 
XXXVII,  Fig.  3. 

The  only  other  living  tribe  for  which  data  are  available  is 
the  Shawnee,  an  Algonkian  group  who  have  been  great  wan- 
derers, but  who  probably  were  resident  in  the  region  south  of 
the  Ohio  River  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Their  modern  and 
probably  much  mixed  descendants  show  a strong  predominance 
of  brachycephalic  factors,  chiefly  of  the  Alpine  type,  and  in  gen- 
eral are  quite  comparable  to  the  Muskogean  tribes  to  the  south- 
ward. 

Neither  for  the  Cherokee  nor  for  any  of  the  Siouan  tribes  of 
this  area  are  any  data  whatever  available.  For  the  Ohio  valley 
region  our  most  important  materials  are  derived  from  the  cist 
burials  in  western  Tennessee,  from  the  cemeteries  at  Madison- 
ville,  and  the  mounds  of  the  Turner  Group.  Although  the  crania 
from  the  Tennessee  region  are  for  the  most  part  deformed,  it 


THE  CENTRAL  BRACHYCEPHALS 


435 


has  been  possible  to  obtain  a sufficiently  large  series1  of  unde- 
formed skulls  to  determine  with  considerable  certainty  the  char- 
acters of  the  people  occupying  the  area  in  prehistoric  times.  Pre- 
dominantly brachycephalic,  the  Alpine  type  is  clearly  in  the  ma- 
jority, the  Palas- Alpine  ranking  second  in  importance,  as  among 
the  Choctaw  of  to-day.  Unlike  the  Muskogean  tribes,  however, 
the  dolichocephalic  minority  is  in  this  case  primarily  Proto-Ne- 
groid, which  was,  it  may  be  remembered,  the  dominant  element 
among  the  Iroquois,  the  Lenape,  and  the  other  Algonkian  tribes 
of  the  southern  New  England  region.  A small  series  of  crania 
from  the  vicinity  of  the  Cahokia  mounds  in  the  extreme  southern 
portion  of  Illinois  show  on  the  whole  similar  features  to  those 
from  Tennessee.  This  population  thus  appears  to  have  been  in- 
termediate in  its  characteristics  between  the  Muskogeans  to  the 
south  and  the  Iroquoian  and  Lenape  tribes  farther  north  and  east. 

The  great  richness  of  the  Ohio  valley  in  archaeological  re- 
mains might  be  thought  to  have  provided  us  with  abundant 
data  on  the  former  occupants  of  this  area,  and  the  builders  of 
the  many  varieties  of  mounds  and  earthworks  for  which  the  region 
is  justly  famous.  Unfortunately,  this  is  not  the  case.  Many 
of  the  more  important  sites  were  explored  before  the  era  of  mod- 
ern methods,  and  the  skeletal  material  either  irretrievably  dam- 
aged, lost,  or  preserved  without  adequate  information.  Many 
of  the  crania  are  strongly  deformed,  and,  as  cremation  was  widely 
employed,  all  opportunities  of  determining  the  physical  type  of 
the  people  were  destroyed.  For  two  sites  only  is  reliable  cranial 
material  available,  the  Madisonville  cemetery  and  the  Turner 
Group  of  mounds,  both  in  southern  Ohio.  Considering  the  for- 
mer site  first,2  we  find  that  the  people  here  buried  were  predomi- 
nantly brachycephalic,  with  the  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  types 
represented  in  about  equal  strength,  the  dolichocephalic  minority 
factors  being  primarily  the  Pro  to- Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid 
types,  which  were  dominant  among  the  Iroquois  and  Lenape. 
These  people  were  thus  in  general  similar  to  those  whose  crania 
are  found  in  the  cist  graves  of  western  Tennessee.  The  archaso- 

1 P.  M.  2 Hooton,  1920. 


436 


NORTH  AMERICA 


logical  evidence  at  Madisonville  indicates  that  the  site  dates 
from  the  period  immediately  preceding  the  European  contact, 
and  that  it  continued  to  be  occupied  until  after  the  first  Euro- 
pean influence  had  made  itself  felt.  It  is,  therefore,  extremely 
probable  that  this  people  of  the  Madisonville  cemetery  may  be 
identified  with  some  Algonkian  or  even  some  Iroquoian  tribe. 

The  Turner  Group  of  mounds  has  yielded  some  of  the  most 
remarkable  objects  ever  found  in  the  Ohio  valley,  and  the 
builders  must  have  belonged  to  the  higher  cultural  stratum  here, 
sometimes  referred  to  as  the  Hopewell  Culture,  from  the  name 
of  a site  where  it  was  particularly  well  revealed.  This  culture 
was,  so  far  as  we  know,  quite  extinct  in  the  region  at  the  time 
of  the  first  European  contact,  and  thus  represents  an  older  type 
than  that  found  at  Madisonville.  The  crania1  from  these  mounds 
are  furthermore  of  two  periods,  one  contemporary  with  the  erec- 
tion of  the  mounds,  the  other  later  and  intrusive.  Although  the 
number  of  crania  complete  enough  for  determining  the  types  is 
small,  it  seems  possible  to  reach  the  following  conclusions.  First, 
that  the  builders  of  the  mounds  were  a people  among  whom  doli- 
chocephalic factors  were  in  large  majority;  second,  that  these 
were  mainly  of  the  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types 
and  thus  show  affiliation  with  the  Iroquois  and  southern  Algon- 
kian tribes;  and  third,  that  the  intrusive  burials  of  later  date 
show  an  even  larger  proportion  of  long-headed  elements,  some 
of  which  are,  however,  leptorrhine,  thus  differentiating  them 
from  the  earlier  crania  among  whom  the  narrow-nosed,  long- 
headed factors  were  practically  absent.  Since  both  earlier  and 
later  burials  here  differ  radically  from  the  historic  and  proto- 
historic  crania  from  Madisonville,  the  minority  types  there  being 
the  dominant  ones  here,  we  seem  to  have  evidence  of  two  pre- 
historic occupations  of  this  region  prior  to  the  appearance  of  the 
people  which  held  the  area  at  the  time  of  the  first  European  con- 
tact. Physically  these  older  peoples  seem  closely  allied  to  the 
early  Iroquois  and  Lenape,  but  culturally  they  were  in  quite  a 
different  category,  and  historically  must  have  preceded  them, 

ip.  M, 


THE  CENTRAL  BRACHYCEPHALS 


437 


since  the  Iroquois  at  least  were  relatively  late  immigrants  into 
their  historic  sites  in  western  New  York,  and  were  much  more 
nearly  contemporaneous  with  the  Madisonville  people. 

The  evidence  afforded  by  such  other  scattered  data  as  are 
available  may  be  briefly  summarized.  In  Illinois  the  mounds 
have  yielded  crania  of  very  different  types.  Those,  for  example, 
along  the  Illinois  River1  closely  resemble  the  older  forms  from 
the  Turner  Group,  whereas  those  from  other  sites2  are  primarily 
brachycephalic,  with  a clear  dominance  of  the  Palae- Alpine  type. 
No  indication,  however,  of  the  relative  age  of  these  mounds  is 
given.  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  show  a similar  situation,  if  it 
is  fair  to  judge  from  very  scanty  material.3 

Summing  up  our  information  from  this  whole  southeastern 
area  it  may  be  said  that  the  Ohio  valley  and  region  north  of  it 
toward  the  Great  Lakes  was  occupied  at  an  early  period  by  a 
people  predominantly  dolichocephalic,  and  allied  more  closely 
with  the  proto-historic  and  prehistoric  Iroquois  and  Lenape 
than  with  any  other  group  in  this  part  of  the  continent.  Ap- 
parently (?)  the  higher  or  Hopewell  Culture  of  the  Ohio  valley 
is  to  be  attributed  to  peoples  of  this  type.  By  proto-historic 
times,  this  population  had  been  replaced  by  one  of  different  char- 
acter, primarily  of  Alpine  and  Palae- Alpine  types.  Farther  to 
the  south  in  the  Gulf  States,  we  have  no  archaeological  materials, 
but  the  historic  Muskogean  tribes  were  predominantly  brachy- 
cephalic, and  in  majority  of  the  Palae-Alpine  type. 

The  problem  of  disentangling  the  racial  history  of  the  region 
would  be  greatly  simplified  if  we  had  some  information  as  to 
the  types  found  among  the  Cherokee,  Yuchi,  and  the  Timuquana 
of  southern  Florida.  If  the  Cherokee  were,  as  seems  not  im- 
probable, comparable  with  the  early  Iroquois  and  Lenape,  we 
might  suppose  this  long-headed,  broad-nosed  group  to  have  ex- 
tended formerly  throughout  the  Appalachian  region  and  west- 
ward down  the  Ohio  valley.  From  the  westward,  then,  to  con- 
tinue our  theoretical  reconstruction,  came  two  thrusts  bringing 
brachycephalic  peoples  from  beyond  the  Mississippi;  one  moving 

1 Hrdlicka,  1907.  2 A.  N.  S.  P.  3 P.  M. 


438 


NORTH  AMERICA 


eastward  up  the  Ohio  and  across  the  Appalachians  to  the  Atlantic 
coast  might  then  be  identified  with  the  Siouan  tribes;  the  other 
crossing  the  Mississippi  farther  down,  pressed  into  the  Gulf  States 
as  the  Muskogi.  The  more  northern  or  Siouan  immigrants 
brought  mainly  Alpine  factors,  whereas  the  Muskogi  in  addition 
brought  a considerable  Palae-Alpine  element  absorbed  in  the 
southern  plains,  which  was  further  increased  by  the  assimilation 
of  the  earlier  occupants  of  the  Gulf  States,  who  may  perhaps 
also  have  been  largely  of  this  same  type.  The  pressure  of  the 
immigrant  Muskogean  tribes  forced  some  of  the  Iroquoian  tribes 
toward  the  north,  and  perhaps  also  the  Lenape,  with  the  result 
that  the  Siouan  population  of  the  Ohio  valley  were  driven  west- 
ward again,  leaving  those  who  had  settled  in  the  Alleghany  region 
isolated.  This  western  movement  of  the  Siouan  tribes  would 
then  be  that  recorded  in  tradition,  and  the  large  dolichocephalic 
element  among  the  eastern  Sioux  may  perhaps  thus  be  explained 
as  derived  from  the  pre-Siouan  long-headed  population  of  the 
Ohio  valley. 

We  have  now  passed  in  review  the  whole  of  the  area  of  North 
America  except  for  the  northwestern  corner  and  the  extreme 
southern  portion  comprised  in  Mexico  and  the  Central  American 
region.  The  northwestern  portion  of  the  continent  is,  so  far  as 
concrete  information  goes,  almost  totally  unknown.  It  was 
occupied  both  in  Alaska  and  in  the  Mackenzie  valley  by  tribes 
belonging  to  the  Athabascan  linguistic  stock,  except  for  the  nar- 
row coastal  strip  and  the  chain  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  which 
were  held  by  Eskimo-speaking  peoples.  The  region  west  of 
James’s  Bay,  on  the  other  hand,  was  occupied  by  the  Algonkian 
tribe  of  the  Cree.  The  latter  were  culturally  related  to  the  Ojibwa 
and  we  can  only  infer,  somewhat  precariously,  that  in  physical 
type  they  were  also  more  or  less  akin. 

For  the  Athabascan  tribes  we  have  a few  facts,  which,  taken 
together,  lead  to  conclusions  which  are  probably  approximately 
true.  Thus  the  Athabascan  Nahane  and  Chilcotin  of  northern 
British  Columbia  are  very  strongly  brachycephalic,  with  a prob- 
able dominance  of  the  Alpine  type.  The  Sarsi,  a small  tribe 


THE  CENTRAL  BRACHYCEPHALS 


439 


long  associated  with  the  Algonkian  Blackfoot,  show  also  a large 
factor  of  the  same  type.  The  Loucheux,1  living  west  of  the  lower 
Mackenzie  in  close  proximity  to  the  Eskimo,  although  obviously 
much  mixed  with  these,  nevertheless  retain  large  brachycephalic 
factors.  Finally,  the  very  few  crania2  known  from  this  whole 
Athabascan  area  are  almost  exclusively  round-headed.  It  would 
seem  justifiable,  therefore,  to  believe  that  the  whole  of  this  north- 
ern Athabascan  area  was  characterized  by  a strongly  prevailing 
brachycephaly,  with  the  Alpine  type  predominant.  This  con- 
clusion seems  to  be  confirmed  by  what  we  know  of  the  Alaskan 
Eskimo.3  These  differ  from  the  more  Eastern  groups  in  having 
a large  majority  of  brachycephalic,  Alpine  factors.4  As  it  seems 
extremely  probable  that  these  Western  Alaskan  Eskimo  owe  their 
differences  from  the  Eastern  groups  to  admixture  with  the  neigh- 
boring tribes,  these  latter  must,  on  this  basis,  be  primarily  of  Al- 
pine type.  For  the  Aleut  the  available  data  are  extremely  meagre, 
and  cranial  deformation  greatly  obscures  the  results,  yet,  making 
such  allowance  as  is  possible  for  this  disturbing  feature,  it  is  prob- 
able that  they  are  in  the  majority  of  the  Palae-Alpine  type,  with 
however  a dolichocephalic  minority,  which  is  stronger  in  the  an- 
cient crania  than  among  the  modern  tribes.  Lastly,  although 
the  value  of  this  evidence  is  probably  not  great,  all  the  Athabascan 
tribes  in  other  parts  of  the  continent,  for  whom  we  have  data, 
such  as  the  Hupa  in  California,  and  the  Navaho  and  Apache  in 
the  Southwest,  are  predominantly  brachycephalic.  If  all  these 
facts  are  taken  into  consideration,  it  seems  that  it  is  probably 
justifiable  to  regard  all  of  this  great  area  in  the  northwest  of  the 
continent  where  it  most  closely  approaches  Asia,  as  one  primarily 
brachycephalic  and  predominantly  Alpine  in  type.  In  stature 
these  northern  Athabascans  are  probably  relatively  tall,  averag- 
ing perhaps  170  cm.  or  even  more,  and  thus  in  this  respect  are 
affiliated  with  the  taller  tribes  of  the  Plains,  and  of  the  northern 
portion  of  the  Northwest  Coast,  rather  than  with  the  undersized 


‘Boas,  1901.  ‘Tarenetsky,  1900;  Russell,  1898;  A.  N.  S.  P. 

3Tarenetsky,  op.  cit.;  Boas,  1901;  A.  M.  N.  H.;  Bessels,  1875. 

4 In  part,  probably,  the  result  of  artificial  deformation. 


440 


NORTH  AMERICA 


peoples  of  the  southern  portion  of  that  coast  and  beyond  to 
California. 

For  the  Mexican  and  Central  American  areas  we  have  to 
repeat  the  old  story  of  utterly  inadequate  materials.  Apart 
from  Hamy’s1  measurements  of  two  or  three  score  of  crania  from 
all  parts  of  Mexico,  for  the  most  part  wholly  without  clear  indi- 
cation of  their  cultural  affiliations  or  antiquity,  and  in  majority 
probably  much  deformed,  Hrdlicka’s2  measurements  in  the  north, 
and  Starr’s3  averages  on  a series  of  living  tribes  in  the  south,  there 
is  no  published  material  of  value.  Without,  therefore,  the  op- 
portunity of  utilizing  the  unpublished  measurements  of  several 
large  series  of  crania,4  it  would  have  been  almost  impossible  to 
discuss  the  Mexican  area  at  all. 

As  far  south  as  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  Mexico  consists 
primarily  of  three  contrasted  regions,  the  low,  tropical  coastal 
plain  stretching  along  the  Gulf;  the  high  plateau  with  its  bor- 
dering mountain  ranges,  essentially  a southern  continuation  of 
the  plateau  area  of  the  western  United  States;  and  the  tropical 
strip  along  the  Pacific  coast.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  larger  part  of  this  whole  area  was  occupied  by  tribes 
belonging  to  the  Nahuan  branch  of  the  now  pretty  generally 
recognized  Uto-Aztecan  stock.  Along  the  Gulf  coast  and  ex- 
tending inland  onto  the  plateau,  from  Tampico  to  Vera  Cruz, 
were  tribes  belonging  to  other  stocks,  such  as  the  Huasteca  and 
Totonac  on  the  coast  and  the  Otomi  and  Tarascan  on  the  plateau. 
Of  these  the  Huasteca  were  an  outlying  member  of  the  Mayan 
stock,  whose  main  habitat  lay  in  Yucatan,  Honduras,  and  Guate- 
mala. A second  area  not  occupied  by  Nahua-speaking  tribes, 
was  on  the  Pacific  side,  covering  the  present  state  of  Oaxaca, 
which  was  held  by  the  Zapotec. 

It  has  been  already  pointed  out  in  another  connection  (p. 
417),  that  the  more  northerly  Uto-Aztecan  tribes,  such  as  the 
Tarahumare  and  Pima,  showed  large  dolichocephalic  factors,  in 
the  main  very  clearly  of  platyrrhine  types,  which  allied  them 
to  that  extent  with  the  prehistoric  crania  from  the  caves  in 
1 Hamy,  1891.  2 Hrdlicka,  1903.  8 Starr,  1902.  4 A.  M.  N.  H. 


THE  CENTRAL  BRACHYCEPHALS 


441 


the  Coahuila1  desert  farther  east.  To  the  southward,  among 
the  Nahuan  Cora  and  Huichol,  these  dolichocephalic  elements 
become  relatively  much  weaker,  these  tribes  being  primarily 
brachycephalic  with  a considerable  majority  of  the  Palas-Alpine 
type.  The  Tarascans  of  Michoacan  carry  the  dominance  of  this 
type  still  farther.  For  the  Otomi,  who  traditionally  represented 
the  pre-Nahuan  population  of  much  of  the  plateau,  the  available 
data  are  very  meagre,  but  among  them  apparently,  although  the 
Palae-Alpine  type  is  dominant,  large  elements  of  both  Proto- 
Negroid  and  Proto- Australoid  are  present,  tending  thus  to  ally 
them  with  the  prehistoric  people  of  the  Coahuila  caves.  The 
Huasteca  and  Totonac  on  the  other  hand,  to  judge  from  Starr’s 
figures,  are  overwhelmingly  brachycephalic,  in  spite  of  the  con- 
fusing effects  of  cranial  deformation.  The  modern  Aztec  or  Na- 
hua  of  the  valley  of  Mexico,  as  well  as  the  Zapotec,2  also  appear 
to  have  a preponderance  of  brachycephalic  factors,  these  being 
more  marked  in  the  latter  than  in  the  Aztec.  No  certainly  identi- 
fied crania  are  available.  An  example  of  the  modern  Aztec  is 
given  on  Plate  XXXVII,  Fig.  4. 

From  the  foregoing  we  may  perhaps  venture  to  suggest  that 
there  was  an  early  stratum  of  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- Aus- 
traloid types  in  the  Mexican  region,  driven  back  into  the  arid 
areas  of  the  northeast  in  prehistoric  times,  but  surviving  as  a 
minority  still  among  the  Otomi,  the  Tarahumare,  and  the  Pima. 
The  dominant  elements,  however,  were  everywhere  a mixture 
of  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  types. 

In  Yucatan  and  Chiapas,  British  Honduras  and  Guatemala 
a series  of  Mayan  tribes  formed  a solid  block  stretching  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  shores.  Strong  artificial  deformation 
obscures  the  question  of  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  Maya 
proper  in  Yucatan,  although  in  all  probability  (?)  they  were 
in  very  large  majority  brachycephalic.  Interest  attaches  there- 
fore all  the  more  to  the  fact  that  in  the  Zotzil  and  Tzendal  tribes 
of  Chiapas*  dolichocephalic  factors  are  predominant,  probably 
although  not  certainly  of  the  broad-nosed  varieties,  and  so  com- 

1 Studley,  1882.  s Baca,  1897.  3 Starr,  1902. 


442 


NORTH  AMERICA 


parable  with  the  early  long-headed  stratum  whose  existence  has 
been  postulated  farther  north. 

In  stature  there  seems  to  be  a contrast  between  the  northern 
Nahuan  tribes  together  with  the  Tarascans  of  Michoacan,  and 
all  the  other  peoples  for  whom  we  have  data,  in  that  the  former 
group  are  in  general  somewhat  above  medium  stature,  averag- 
ing between  165  and  179  cm.,  whereas  the  latter  are  with  few 
exceptions  distinctly  short,  averaging  between  155  and  160  cm. 

For  all  the  remainder  of  the  Central  American  area  as  far 
as  Panama,  there  are  no  available  data  of  any  value. 


BOOK  VI 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


INTRODUCTION 


For  North  America  and  sundry  other  portions  of  the  world 
we  have  had  to  deplore  the  lack  of  data  upon  which  to  base  a 
coherent  theory  of  their  racial  history;  for  the  South  American 
continent  the  dearth  of  materials  becomes  acute,  and  for  no  other 
great  area  do  we  know  so  little  in  regard  to  the  physical  charac- 
ters of  its  inhabitants.  At  least  half  if  not  two-thirds  of  the  con- 
tinent is  practically  a blank,  while  the  wide  prevalence  of  artificial 
cranial  deformation  gives  to  the  data  from  much  of  the  remain- 
ing area  a most  uncertain  value.  It  is  only  possible  therefore 
to  sketch  in  the  most  tentative  fashion  the  broad  outlines  of  the 
racial  problems  of  South  America  and  trust  that  the  data  for 
filling  in  the  details  may  be  secured  before  it  is  too  late. 

The  main  features  of  the  geography  of  South  America,  so  far 
as  they  have  a bearing  on  its  racial  history,  may  be  briefly  stated. 
In  the  northern  continent  the  dividing  range  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains is  located  so  as  to  leave  perhaps  a third  of  the  continent 
on  its  western  side;  in  South  America  the  Cordillera  of  the  Andes 
hugs  closely  the  western  continental  margin,  leaving  but  a very 
narrow  strip  between  it  and  the  Pacific.  Whereas  in  North 
America  the  whole  mountain  system  beyond  the  plateau  area 
has  a width  of  from  three  to  five  hundred  miles,  and  the  plateau 
area  itself  in  its  widest  part  extends  for  nearly  800  miles  east 
and  west,  in  the  southern  continent  the  Cordillera  is  rarely  more 
than  200  miles,  for  the  southern  third  little  more  than  100  miles 
in  width,  while  the  high  plateau  area  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  attains 
a maximum  width  only  about  a third  of  that  of  the  much  lower- 
lying  comparable  area  in  North  America.  The  great  mass  of 
the  continent  lying  east  of  the  Andes  is  divisible  into  four  sepa- 
rate areas,  two  lowland  and  two  highland.  In  the  first  category 
belong  the  vast  Amazon  basin  forested  and  tropical  in  its  climate, 
and  the  plains  and  pampas  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  con- 

415 


446 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


tinent,  from  the  Chaco  of  eastern  Bolivia,  Argentina,  and  Para- 
guay through  Patagonia  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  In  the  sec- 
ond group  are  the  highlands  of  eastern  Brazil  and  those  of  eastern 
Venezuela  and  the  Guianas.  The  great  Amazonian  forest  is 
in  many  respects  comparable  with  the  Congo  forest  in  Africa, 
in  that  it  is  in  a measure  a “refuge  area”  economically  less  favor- 
able than  the  surrounding  highlands  or  the  great  plains  of  the 
south.  Climatically  the  greater  part  of  South  America  is  tropical, 
but,  owing  to  its  elevation,  the  Andean  chain  carries  southward 
across  the  equator  a temperate  climate,  so  that  migrant  peoples 
from  the  north  could,  by  following  the  inter-Andine  valleys,  reach 
the  temperate  area  of  the  southern  plains  without  being  subjected 
to  unfamiliar  conditions. 

The  peopling  of  North  America  must  have  taken  place,  as 
has  been  shown,  by  way  of  Bering  Strait,  and  the  topography 
of  the  country  is  such  that  all  immigrants  probably  tended  to 
spread  southward  over  the  continent  by  way  of  the  Plains,  unless 
they  moved  along  the  shores.  For  the  peopling  of  South  America 
two  routes  were  open,  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  the 
long,  curving  chain  of  the  Antilles.  The  topography  of  the  con- 
tinent gives  to  each  of  these  two  ways  a special  significance.  The 
Isthmus  of  Panama  lies  practically  at  right  angles  to  the  main 
axis  of  the  Andean  system,  which  in  northern  Colombia  and  west- 
ern Venezuela  curves  around  toward  the  east,  where  it  forms 
the  rugged  northern  shore  of  the  continent  as  far  as  the  delta  of 
the  Orinoco.  Immigration  by  way  of  Panama  would  thus  tend 
to  be  diverted  either  along  the  Caribbean  or  Pacific  shores,  or 
up  the  great  longitudinal  valleys  of  the  Cauca  or  Magdalena, 
and  so  southward  along  the  Cordillera.  The  route  from  Florida 
by  way  of  the  Antillean  islands,  on  the  other  hand,  required  some 
seamanship  and  reached  the  continent  at  the  delta  of  the  Orinoco, 
where  also  two  alternatives  confront  the  immigrant;  for  he  may 
either  travel  along  the  coast  east  or  west,  or  follow  up  the  course 
of  the  Orinoco,  which  would  bring  him  directly  into  the  Ama- 
zonian basin.  We  might  logically  expect,  therefore,  that,  apart 
from  evidences  of  littoral  drifts,  two  great  streams  of  immigra- 


INTRODUCTION 


447 


tion  might  be  discerned,  one  of  which,  coming  by  way  of  Panama, 
followed  southward  through  the  temperate  climate  of  the  Cor- 
dillera to  the  southern  plains,  tending  thus  to  pass  around  the 
western  edge  of  the  Amazonian  forest,  while  the  other,  coming 
from  Florida  along  the  Antillean  chain,  spread  up  the  Orinoco 
into  the  tropical  region  of  the  Amazon. 

Before  we  turn  to  the  consideration  of  the  physical  types,  a 
word  must  be  said  in  regard  to  the  linguistic  characteristics  of 
the  South  American  peoples.  As  in  North  America,  we  find  here 
a great,  almost  a bewildering  diversity  in  language.  More  than 
eighty  different  linguistic  stocks  are  at  present  recognized,1  di- 
visible, as  in  the  north,  into  the  two  classes  of  large  and  small 
stocks.  The  former  group  may  be  taken  to  include  the  Carib, 
Arawak,  Chibchan,  Pano,  Ges,  Quechua,  Araucanian,  Puelchean 
and  Tsonekan  stocks,  which  together  occupy  probably  five-sixths 
of  the  whole  continent,  several  such  as  the  Carib  and  Arawak 
extending  over  very  large  areas.  The  smaller  stocks  are  dis- 
tributed rather  strikingly  in  a main  belt  stretching  along  the 
eastern  base  of  the  Andes  and  the  western  edge  of  the  Amazonian 
basin,  and  in  a less  distinct  strip  fringing  the  borders  of  the  Bra- 
zilian Highlands.  It  is  difficult  to  avoid  the  conclusion  that 
these  smaller  stocks,  many  of  which  occupy  very  restricted  areas, 
represent  the  survivors  of  an  older  stratum  of  peoples  which 
have  been  crowded  out  by  the  expansion  of  the  larger  stocks 
that  have  spread  through  the  Andean  area  and  the  Amazonian 
forest. 

Turning  now  to  a consideration  of  the  physical  types,  it  will  be 
seen  from  the  maps  given  on  Plates  XXXVIII  to  XLI  that  the 
distribution  of  the  dolichocephalic  and  brachycephalic  types  in 
South  America,  so  far  as  known,  strikingly  parallels  their  distribu- 
tion in  the  northern  continent  shown  on  Plates  XXX  to  XXXIII. 
Here  as  there  the  dolichocephalic  forms  are  concentrated  in  two 
main  groups,  one  of  which  is  fairly  continuous  and  fringes  the 
southeastern  margin  of  the  continent  with  extensions  onto  the 
Brazilian  uplands;  the  other,  consisting  of  isolated  patches,  being 

1 Chamberlain,  1913. 


448 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


scattered  along  the  Andean  chain  from  Venezuela  to  Chile.  The 
brachycephalic  types,  as  in  North  America,  are  in  the  main  spread 
over  the  more  central  portions  of  the  continent.  In  North  Amer- 
ica the  leptorrhine,  dolichocephalic  factors  were  most  in  evidence 
in  the  extreme  north  and  northeast;  here  they  are  of  greatest  im- 
portance in  the  farthest  south  and  southeast.  The  largest  propor- 
tions of  the  platyrrhine  dolichocephals  are  found  along  the  inner 
margins,  as  it  were,  of  the  leptorrhine  forms,  in  the  Brazilian 
Highlands,  paralleling  their  abundance  among  the  Iroquois  and 
southern  Algonkian  tribes  in  the  northern  continent.  There 
these  factors  were  also  present  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  con- 
tinent where  they  underlay  all  other  types;  here  they  appear 
in  the  ancient  crania  from  the  Paltalcalo  rock  shelters  on  the 
Ecuadorian  coast,  while  the  dominant  character  of  these  types 
in  the  Lagoa  Santa  skulls  from  the  eastern  border  of  the  Brazilian 
Highlands,  speaks  for  their  antiquity  in  that  portion  of  the  con- 
tinent. On  the  basis  of  distribution,  however,  the  leptorrhine, 
Mediterranean-Caspian  types  are  apparently  the  older,  their 
concentration  along  the  eastern  coast  and  especially  their  pres- 
ence in  the  shell-heaps  of  the  Brazilian  shore,  together  with  their 
dominance  among  the  Ona,  Yaghan,  and  Alikaluf  of  the  extreme 
southern  tip  of  the  continent,  being  very  significant. 

In  South  America  as  in  North,  we  can  be  sure  that  the  long- 
headed groups  represent  the  earlier  immigrants,  and  of  these,  on 
the  basis  of  distribution,  the  narrow-nosed  group  is  probably  the 
older.  In  view,  however,  of  the  vast  areas  for  which  we  possess  as 
yet  no  data,  it  is  almost  useless  to  hazard  a guess  as  to  the  routes 
by  which  these  types  reached  and  spread  over  the  continent. 
Possibly  the  relative  strength  of  the  platyrrhine  factors  in  the 
Brazilian  Highlands,  in  the  smaller , stocks  of  the  Orinoco  area 
and  in  the  crania  from  the  caves  at  Ipiiboto  in  this  same  region, 
may  point  to  their  arrival  by  way  of  the  Antillean  route.  If 
this  be  the  case,  the  presence  of  these  factors  on  the  Ecuador 
coast  might  be  explained  as  due  to  a later  westward  drift  across 
the  Andes,  for  which,  on  the  cultural  side,  there  is  some  evidence. 

For  North  America  cranial  data  made  it  possible  to  deter- 


PLATE  XXXVIII.  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Percentage  distribution  of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  Types. 


Greenwich 


from 


80°  Longitude  70' 


West 


Equator 


Tropic  of  Capiicorn 


or  over 


f\  # 

<i  / 

/ 

3 

/ 

/ 

l v 

L ) 

) 1 

$ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

PLATE  XXXIX.  SOUTH  AMERICA. 
Percentage  distribution  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  Types. 


PLATE  XL.  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Percentage  distribution  of  Pals-Alpine  and  Mongoloid  Types. 


\ 


Greenwich  4( 


from. 


80°  Longitude  70° 


West 


Equator 


Tropic  of  Capricorn 


or  over 


PLATE  XLI.  SOUTH  AMERICA. 
Percentage  distribution  of  Alpine  and  Ural  Types. 


INTRODUCTION 


449 


mine  with  some  degree  of  certainty  the  individual  types  present. 
In  the  southern  continent  this  can  be  done  less  widely,  owing  to 
the  absence  of  cranial  material.  We  can,  however,  be  confident 
that,  as  in  the  north,  the  Caspian  type  is  far  and  away  the  most 
important  one  in  the  leptorrhine  group,  whereas  of  the  platyr- 
rhine,  the  Proto-Negroid  largely  outnumbers  the  Proto- Austra- 
loid, at  least  in  the  two  most  important  series,  i.  e.,  those  from 
Lagoa  Santa  in  Brazil  and  Paltalcalo  in  Ecuador. 

Now  the  presence  of  a strong  Proto-Negroid  factor  among 
these  prehistoric  crania  raises  a particularly  troublesome  ques- 
tion. As  is  well  known,  the  modern  population  of  Brazil,  both 
Indian  and  white,  is  known  to  have  had  a considerable  infusion 
of  Negro  blood  in  the  period  since  the  fifteenth  century.  How 
are  we  to  tell  then  in  the  case  of  living  tribes,  such  for  example 
as  the  Caraya  of  the  Brazilian  Highlands,  when  we  find  evidence 
of  a strong  Proto-Negroid  factor,  whether  this  element  is  to  be 
regarded  as  aboriginal  and  derived  from  the  ancient  stratum  of 
this  type,  or  is  to  be  traced  to  recent  miscegenation  with  the 
Negroes  introduced  by  the  Portuguese  settlers?  Unfortunately 
there  is  no  certain  method  of  distinguishing  between  these  two 
possibilities,  and  we  can  only  take  probabilities  and  known  his- 
torical facts  into  account  in  trying  to  reach  a decision.  In  the 
case  of  the  Caraya,  for  example,  we  may  be  moderately  sure  that 
we  have  not  here  to  do  with  any  recent  mixture.  One  purely 
theoretical  criterion  may  be  of  service  in  such  cases,  namely 
that  recent  Negroid  admixture  might  be  expected  to  show  itself 
in  a deeper  skin  color,  curliness  of  hair  and  other  features  char- 
acteristic of  the  modern  Negro,  who,  as  I shall  try  to  show,  may 
be  regarded  as  an  extreme  development  of  the  ancient  Proto- 
Negroid  type,  in  which  these  elements  were  less  strongly  marked. 

Turning  now  to  the  brachycephalic  types,  we  found  that  in 
North  America  the  indications  were  quite  .clear  that  the  platyr- 
rhine  forms  preceded  the  leptorrhine.  Can  any  evidence  be  found 
in  the  southern  continent  which  tends  to  show  the  priority  of 
one  of  these  over  the  other?  The  almost  total  absence  of  any 
sort  of  data  for  most  of  the  Amazon  basin,  and  the  wide  prev- 


450 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


alence  of  artificial  cranial  deformation  along  the  Pacific  coast, 
renders  the  problem  very  difficult,  yet  I believe  that  the  same 
sequence  is  indicated.  In  the  Brazilian  Highlands,  for  example, 
we  have  a complex  mixture  of  linguistic  and  physical  types  such 
that  all  the  facts  seem  best  explained  by  assuming  three  successive 
strata  of  population,  the  oldest  being  represented  by  the  Caraya, 
who  show  a predominance  of  the  dolichocephalic,  platyrrhine 
forms;  the  intermediate  being  represented  by  the  Bororo  and 
perhaps  the  Carib  Bakairi,  characterized  by  platyrrhine,  brachy- 
cephalic  forms;  while  the  most  recent,  exemplified  by  the  Trumai 
and  the  Tupian  Aueto  show  a predominance  of  the  leptorrhine, 
brachycephalic  types.  Again,  the  modern  Quechua  and  Aimara 
peoples  of  southern  Peru  and  Bolivia  appear  to  show  a concen- 
tration of  the  platyrrhine  factors  in  the  more  remote,  moun- 
tainous areas,  whereas  the  leptorrhine  elements  are  more  promi- 
nent elsewhere.  A tentative  assumption,  however,  that  the 
platyrrhine,  brachycephalic  types  in  general  preceded  the  lep- 
torrhine, is  about  as  far  as  it  is  safe  to  go  on  the  data  at  hand. 
There  are  indications,  to  be  sure,  which  suggest  the  immigration 
of  the  former  type  by  way  of  the  Antilles,  and  its  spread  from  the 
Orinoco  through  the  core  of  the  continent,  and  of  the  entrance 
of  the  leptorrhine  group,  on  the  other  hand,  by  way  of  Panama. 
There  are  parallels  which  might  be  drawn  between  the  Amazon 
forest  as  a “refuge  area,”  and  the  comparable  region  of  the  pla- 
teaus in  the  northern  continent;  there  are  curious  indications  of 
cultural  influences  which  bear  out  the  belief  in  the  southward 
drift  of  the  leptorrhine  type  along  the  Pacific  coast.  Until,  how- 
ever, the  enormous  gaps  in  our  material  are  at  least  partially 
filled,  no  theorizing  of  this  sort  can  be  carried  on  with  profit. 

One  very  significant  phenomenon  may  finally  be  noted.  Al- 
though we  may  have  some  reason  to  believe  that  part  at  least  of 
the  immigration  into  South  America  passed  through  the  Antil- 
lean region  from  the  northern  continent,  in  historic  times  this 
current  has  been  reversed,  and  South  American  peoples  have 
been  streaming  northward  toward  Florida.  The  Carib  conquest 
and  occupation  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  were  in  large  measure  com- 


INTRODUCTION 


451 


plete  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  older  Arawak  popu- 
lation had  been  partly  destroyed,  partly  absorbed,  and  raids  had 
already  begun  upon  the  Greater  Antillean  islands.  One  cannot 
help  thinking  of  the  South  American  continent  in  this  connec- 
tion as  a vast  reservoir  into  which  for  hundreds,  probably  thou- 
sands of  years,  people  had  been  drifting  from  the  north,  by  way 
of  the  two  narrow  channels.  At  last  the  reservoir  was  filled,  and 
the  pressure  of  population  was  such  as  to  reverse  the  current  in 
one  of  these  channels,  with  the  result  that  the  flood  began  to 
pour  back  toward  its  source.  Whether  any  such  reversal  of  the 
older  drift  had  also  taken  place  in  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  still 
uncertain,  although  there  are  some  indications  that  it  had,  and 
that  at  any  rate  along  the  Caribbean  coast  a northward  move- 
ment had  actually  begun. 

In  South  America  as  in  North  the  peoples  of  the  higher  cul- 
ture all  belonged  to  the  brachycephalic  group  and,  in  the  main, 
to  the  leptorrhine  branch,  the  only  exception  apparently  being 
the  ancient  people  of  the  Tiahuanaco  region  in  Bolivia,  where 
the  crania  of  the  population  responsible  at  least  for  the  early 
stages  of  this  remarkable  culture  were  probably  (?)  strongly 
long-headed. 

In  the  introductory  chapter  of  the  section  dealing  with  North 
America  the  question  was  raised  whether  the  theory  of  a multi- 
ple racial  origin  for  the  American  Indian  did  not  meet  an  in- 
superable obstacle  in  trying  to  bring  these  varied  types  into  the 
South  American  continent  through  two  such  narrow  corridors 
as  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  the  Antilles.  The  difficulties  are 
patent  indeed,  yet  I believe  that,  great  though  they  are,  the 
peculiar  distribution  of  the  physical  types  within  the  South  Amer- 
ican continent  can  only  with  greater  difficulty  be  accounted  for 
in  any  other  way.  And,  if  we  note  the  striking  parallels  between 
the  distribution  of  the  same  types  in  the  two  continents,  the 
hypothesis  of  a single  racial  type  with  merely  local  variations 
becomes  a sheer  impossibility.  Grant,  if  you  will,  that  the  primi- 
tive American  type,  described  as  “Mongoloid”  in  the  general 
meaning  of  that  term,  has  been  protean  in  its  ability  to  vary; 


452 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


here  as  long-headed  as  the  purest  “ Nordic”  or  Fijian,  there  as 
round-headed  as  a Swiss  or  Armenian;  here  as  narrow-nosed  as 
an  Englishman  or  an  Egyptian,  there  as  broad-nosed  as  a Papuan 
or  a Tamil — grant  all  this,  and  it  remains  to  be  explained  why 
the  supposed  variations  have  occurred  in  such  a surprisingly 
regular  manner,  and  have  been  distributed  both  in  time  and 
space  in  such  a definite  sequence ! If  we  regard  skeletal  char- 
acteristics alone,  there  are  just  as  wide  variations  in  the  American 
continents  as  are  found  in  Europe,  or  wider,  and  if  we  must  re- 
gard these  in  America  merely  as  local  and  without  racial  sig- 
nificance, why  not  also  in  Europe?  Because  there,  archaeology 
and  history  make  it  impossible ! We  know  that  the  Bronze  Age 
Alpine  crania  in  England  are  not  a mere  chance  local  variation 
of  the  Neolithic  Mediterranean  forms;  that  the  long-headed 
“Nordic”  Alemani  of  northern  Switzerland  were  an  immigrant 
people  and  not  a modification  of  the  Alpine  Swiss  population. 
The  facts  are  the  same  in  America — why  not  interpret  them  in 
the  same  way,  provided  such  interpretation  does  not  conflict 
with  other  established  conclusions?  For  America  we  have  little 
that  can  be  called  history  and  have  only  begun  to  secure  adequate 
archaeological  material;  yet  already  this  affords  us,  for  example 
in  the  Southwest,  precisely  the  same  kind  of  evidence  for  the 
succession  of  racial  types  as  is  universally  accepted  as  valid  in 
Europe ! 

Relying  on  the  old  method  of  utilizing  only  averages,  Wissler 
can  still  say,  in  the  latest  edition  of  his  very  valuable  volume  on 
the  American  Indian,  that  the  different  variations  in  physical 
type  met  with  in  the  New  World  are  merely  the  “natural  random 
fluctuations  around  the  fundamental  type,”  and  that  these  show 
only  an  “erratic  geographic  distribution.”  The  analysis  of  the 
data  presented  in  the  present  volume  shows,  however,  that  these 
variations  are  neither  “random”  nor  “erratic”  in  their  distribu- 
tion, but  that  on  the  contrary  they  show  a definite  sequence  both 
in  time  and  space  which  accords  with  the  main  lines  of  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  spread  of  the  American  Indian  and  the  development 
of  his  cultures,  as  derived  from  other  sources.  We  may*  how- 


INTRODUCTION 


453 


ever,  defer  further  discussion  of  these  fundamental  problems  to 
the  final  chapter,  and  turn  to  the  more  detailed  consideration  of 
the  South  American  types. 

The  maps,  Plates  XXXVIII  to  XLI,  for  South  America 
serve  to  show  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  dolicho- 
cephalic and  brachycephalic  factors.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
former  are  concentrated  in  three  separate  areas,  one  in  the  south 
and  east,  which  is  in  the  main  littoral;  one  in  the  Brazilian  High- 
lands; and  one  made  up  of  several  isolated  small  areas  along 
the  western  border  of  the  continent.  As  in  the  northern  conti- 
nent, the  eastern  and  western  dolichocephalic  areas  are  sepa- 
rated by  a great  intervening  region  which  is  characterized  by 
the  predominance  of  brachycephalic  types,  which  thus  occupy  the 
whole  of  the  interior. 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  SOUTHEASTERN  DOLICHOCEPHALS 

The  Southeastern  Dolichocephalic  Area  comprises  Patagonia, 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  at  least  the  southern  portion  of  the  Chilean  ar- 
chipelago, and  the  coastal  districts  of  Brazil  south  of  Rio  Janeiro, 
where  the  ancient  but  not  the  historic  population  were  of  this 
type.  In  this  area  the  leptorrhine,  dolichocepahlic  forms  prevail. 
Examining  the  data  more  in  detail,  it  appears  that  the  tribes  of 
the  extreme  south,  the  Alikaluf,  Yaghan,  and  Ona,  present  a 
number  of  puzzling  questions. 

The  extremely  meagre  and  somewhat  uncertain  material 
available  from  the  Alikaluf,1  whose  habitat  was  at  the  Pacific 
end  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  from  the  little  known  tribes 
of  the  Chilean  archipelago  is  rather  contradictory.  The  dozen 
or  so  fairly  authenticated  crania  show  on  analysis  a large  ma- 
jority of  dolichocephalic  factors,  the  Caspian  type  alone  making 
up  some  70  per  cent  of  the  total;  yet  the  still  smaller  series  of 
measurements  on  the  living  indicate  on  the  contrary  the  pre- 
dominance of  leptorrhine,  hr achy  cephalic  forms  ! For  the  Yaghan2 
the  situation  is,  if  possible,  even  more  confusing,  for  if  we  con- 
sider only  the  dozen  or  more  crania  described  by  Garson,  Deniker, 
Hultkranz,  and  Ten  Kate  we  find  a large  majority  of  dolicho- 
cephalic, leptorrhine  forms,  whereas  in  the  series  published  by 
Mantegazza  and  Regalia,  although  dolichocephalic  factors  are 
slightly  in  the  majority,  the  proportion  of  Alpine  types  is  ac- 
tually greater  than  any  other  single  form.  Finally,  if  we  analyze 
Deniker’s  series  of  measurements  on  the  living,  we  find,  as  in  the 
previous  instance  of  the  Alikaluf,  that  a rather  strong  majority 
of  the  brachycephalic,  leptorrhine  factors  is  present,  and  that 

1 Virchow,  1881 ; Deniker,  1891;  Martin,  1892;  Hultkranz,  1898;  Ten  Kate,  1905; 
Latcham,  1909;  Turner,  1884. 

2 Garson,  1885;  Mantegazza  and  Regalia,  1886;  Deniker,  1891;  Hultkranz,  1900; 
Ten  Kate,  1905. 


454 


THE  SOUTHEASTERN  DOLICHOCEPHALS 


455 


the  dolichocephalic  minority  is  of  the  broad  rather  than  the  nar- 
row nosed  type ! In  the  matter  of  stature,  the  data  are  more 
accordant,  and  we  may  have  little  doubt  but  that  the  Alikaluf 
and  Yaghan  are  both  short  peoples,  the  average  stature  varying 
between  157  and  160  cm.  The  contrast  between  long-headed 
crania  and  round-headed  living  individuals  recalls  a somewhat 
similar  condition  in  the  Iroquois  area  in  North  America,  and  it  is 
possible  although  hardly  probable  that  we  may  here,  as  there, 
be  dealing  on  the  one  hand  with  relatively  old  crania,  and  on 
the  other  with  modern  mixed  bloods.  On  the  face  of  it,  the  crania 
are  perhaps  the  safer  and  probably  the  older  guides,  and  on  their 
showing  we  may  accept  these  two  tribes  as  primarily  of  Caspian 
and  Mediterranean  types,  with  a strong  infusion  of  Alpine  fac- 
tors. A portrait  of  a Yaghan  is  given  on  Plate  XLII,  Fig.  1. 

For  the  Onas,1  who  occupy  the  eastern  and  northern  portions 
of  the  island  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  the  data  are  more  meagre  yet. 
On  the  basis  of  the  half-dozen  crania  known,  the  Onas  are  in 
very  large  majority  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  types,  and 
thus  in  general  accord  with  the  Yaghan  and  Alikaluf  so  far  as 
cranial  characters  are  concerned.  They  very  strikingly  differ 
from  them,  however,  in  stature.  For,  whereas  these  tribes  are, 
as  we  have  seen,  short,  the  Onas  are  notably  tall,  averaging  some- 
thing over  175  cm.  In  this  feature  they  agree  with  the  modern 
Tehuelche  or  Patagonians,  whose  still  greater  stature  has  long 
been  proverbial,  and  with  whom  the  Onas  are  connected  by  many 
cultural  traits.  An  example  of  the  Ona  type  is  shown  on  Plate 
XLII,  Fig.  2. 

The  Patagonian  region,  extending  northward  from  the  Straits 
of  Magellan  to  the  Rio  Negro,  was  occupied  by  a series  of  tribes 
forming  the  Tehuelche  or  Tsonekan  linguistic  stock.  Long  fa- 
mous because  of  their  supposed  gigantic  stature,  these  people 
present  again  certain  contradictory  features.  The  modern  Te- 
huelches  are  indeed  an  extremely  tall  people,  their  average  stature 
being  somewhat  over  175  cm.,  so  that  they  and  the  Onas  slightly 
exceed  in  height  the  tallest  tribes  of  the  North  American  Plains. 

1 Hultkranz,  1900;  Rivet,  1908. 


456 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Their  strongly  brachycephalic  head-form  is  due,  however,  at  least 
in  part,  to  the  practice  of  artificial  deformation,  and  undeformed 
individuals  among  them  are  said  to  be  clearly  dolichocephalic. 
The  Tehuelche  type  is  illustrated  on  Plate  XLII,  Fig.  3. 

The  most  important  data,  however,  are  derived  from  the 
large  series  of  proto-historic  and  prehistoric  crania1  and  skeletal 
remains  which  have  been  gathered  from  the  central  and  northern 
portions  of  their  habitat.  Although  a considerable  proportion  even 
of  the  ancient  crania  show  deformation,  a large  number  of  quite 
normal  crania  are  available,  and  show  that  dolichocephalic  fac- 
tors are  in  large  majority  (ca.  70  per  cent),  the  leptorrhine  and 
platyrrhine  types  being  equally  represented,  the  Caspian  type 
being  that  which  is  dominant.  The  brachycephalic  factors  are 
almost  wholly  of  the  Alpine  type.  The  female  crania  present 
an  interesting  and  perhaps  significant  difference,  in  that  the 
platyrrhine  elements  are  noticeably  more  abundant,  in  particular 
the  Proto-Australoid,  while  the  Palse-Alpine  displaces  the  Alpine 
which  was  the  minority  factor  among  the  males.  If  this  greater 
development  of  the  platyrrhine  types  is  not  due  to  the  general 
tendency  of  female  crania  to  have  somewhat  broader  noses  than 
in  the  case  of  the  male,  it  would  suggest  the  greater  relative  an- 
tiquity of  the  Proto-Australoid  type  in  relation  to  the  Caspian. 
In  stature  these  ancient  Patagonians  were  somewhat  less  tall 
than  the  living,  and  decrease  from  an  average  of  173  cm.  on  the 
Rio  Negro  to  169  cm.  in  the  southern  province  of  Santa  Cruz. 

At  various  points  in  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires,  discoveries 
of  human  remains  have  at  various  times  been  made,  under  con- 
ditions suggesting  great  antiquity.  The  Pliocene  or  even  Miocene 
Age  of  some  of  these  specimens  has  been  vigorously  upheld  by 
Ameghino2  and  other  South  American  geologists,  who  have  de- 
clared that  some  of  these  fragments  represented  the  actual  pre- 
cursors of  modern  man,  and  that  the  development  of  the  human 
species  must  therefore  be  regarded  as  having  taken  place  in  the 
New  World.  Recent  investigations3  of  the  whole  problem  by 
other  geologists  and  anthropologists  have  discredited  these  ex- 

1 Marelli,  1915;  Puccioni,  1912;  Verneau,  1894,  1903;  Virchow,  1874. 

2 Ameghino,  1880,  and  many  later  articles.  3 Hrdlicka,  1912. 


Fig.  2.  Ona. 


THE  SOUTHEASTERN  DOLICHOCEPHALS 


457 


travagant  claims,  and  shown  that  the  remains  were  unquestion- 
ably human  and  not  prehuman,  and  that  the  strata  in  which 
they  were  found  are  certainly  Pleistocene,  and  therefore  much 
more  recent  than  at  first  stated.  The  remains  found,  however, 
unquestionably  represent  a population  which  was  living  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  continent  several  thousand  years  ago. 
The  more  important  of  the  discoveries  which  include  human 
crania  are  those  of  Pontimelo  or  Fontezuelas,  Arrecifes,  Miramar, 
etc.  In  every  case,  however,  the  crania  are  so  incomplete  and 
fragmentary  that  no  nasal  measurements  are  given,  so  that  we 
can  have  no  certainty  as  to  the  types  present.  It  can  only  be 
said  that  the  first  and  last  crania  are  dolichocephalic  and  high, 
while  the  Arrecifes  skull  is  on  the  lower  margin  of  mesocephaly. 
These  finds  indicate,  therefore,  that  the  oldest  known  population 
along  the  eastern  coast  of  Argentina  was  a predominantly  long- 
headed one,  according  thus  with  all  the  other  evidence  as  yet 
presented. 

The  historic  population  of  the  Brazilian  coast  region  belonged 
to  the  Tupi- Guarani  linguistic  stock,  and  were  probably,  as  will 
be  seen  later,  a strongly  marked  brachycephalic  folk.  Through- 
out the  whole  of  the  coast  region  south  of  Rio  Janeiro  there  are 
abundant  shell-heaps  known  locally  as  sambaquis,  cosquieros, 
etc.,  and  in  part,  at  least,  attributable  to  a pre-Tupi  people,  as 
shown  by  the  wholly  different  type  of  their  culture.  Of  the  hu- 
man skeletal  remains  from  these  shell-heaps  no  adequate  study 
has,  so  far  as  I am  aware,  yet  been  made,  and  available  data 
are  very  few.  The  published  crania1  indicate  a prevailingly  doli- 
chocephalic population,  in  which  the  Caspian  type  is  in  large 
majority.  Yet  von  Ihering2  and  others  declare  that  a definitely 
brachycephalic  type  also  occurs,  although  whether  in  associa- 
tion with  the  dolichocephalic  or  stratigraphically  or  geographically 
distinct  is  not  stated.  A thoroughgoing  investigation  of  this 
whole  question  is  obviously  urgently  demanded.  Materials  of 
possible  significance  in  this  connection  have  been  obtained  by 
Torres3  from  burial  mounds  and  cemeteries  in  the  region  just  to 
the  southward  in  the  Parana  delta.  The  simple  hunting  and 
1Lacerda,  1885.  2 Von  Ihering,  1904.  3 Torres,  1907. 


458 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


fishing  folk  whose  remains  are  found  here,  who  in  culture  show 
resemblance  to  the  sambaquis  builders  and  who  clearly  ante- 
dated the  appearance  of  Europeans,  were  an  essentially  doli- 
chocephalic people, of  stature  above  the  average  (168  cm.),  among 
whom  the  Caspian  type  was  strongly  dominant. 

Somewhat  farther  to  the  north,  in  the  basin  of  the  Rio  Doce 
in  the  coastal  portion  of  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes,  are  the 
remnants  of  the  once  much  more  numerous  people  of  very  primi- 
tive culture,  known  as  the  Botocudos.1  Linguistically  they  be- 
long to  the  Ges  stock,  which  extended  over  a large  area  in  the 
adjacent  Brazilian  Highlands,  and  are  generally  regarded  as  the 
underlying  stratum  of  population  in  this  whole  region,  having 
preceded  and  been  driven  out  by  the  Tupi  in  prehistoric  times. 
In  stature  averaging  159  cm.,  they  prove  to  be  an  almost  purely 
dolichocephalic  people,  the  Caspian  type  being  in  very  large  ma- 
jority, but  associated  with  a substantial  minority  of  the  Proto- 
Negroid  type.  The  Botocudos  have  been  generally  regarded  as 
closely  related  to  and  probably  the  descendants  of  the  people  pres- 
ently to  be  discussed,  whose  remains  have  been  found  in  the  fa- 
mous Lagoa  Santa  caves,  lying  farther  westward  on  the  edge  of 
the  Brazilian  Highlands.  In  so  far  as  the  minority  factor  of  Proto- 
Negroid  type  is  concerned,  this  relationship  is  indeed  shown, 
but  their  primary  affiliation  is  unmistakably  with  the  ancient 
builders  of  the  shell-heaps. 

Summarizing  all  of  these  facts,  I believe  it  may  be  regarded 
as  pretty  definitely  established  that  along  the  whole  eastern 
coast  of  South  America,  from  Tierra  del  Fuego  as  far  at  least  as 
the  Rio  Doce,  the  underlying  and  oldest  stratum  of  population 
was  one  which  was  primarily  of  the  Caspian  type;  that  with  this 
was  associated  a smaller  element  of  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto- 
Australoid  types,  and  that  brachycephalic  factors,  in  the  main 
Alpine,  were  present  in  general  only  as  a small  minority.  In 
culture,  all  of  these  peoples  were  distinctly  primitive,  and  they 
were  in  part  extinct  before  the  earliest  arrival  of  Europeans. 

1 Ehrenreich,  1887,  1897;  Peixotto,  1884;  Virchow,  1885. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  BRAZILIAN  HIGHLANDS  AND  THE  WESTERN 
DOLICHOCEPHALS 

If  we  pass  inland  to  the  Brazilian  Highlands,  a striking  con- 
trast to  the  conditions  found  along  the  coast  at  once  makes  it- 
self manifest.  The  crania  found  in  the  Lagoa  Santa  caves  by 
Lund, 1 in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  have  long  aroused 
the  interest  of  anthropologists.  Associated  as  they  were  in  the 
cave  with  the  bones  of  extinct  animal  species,  they  were  at  one 
time  held  to  be  of  very  great  age.  Although  these  earlier  views 
have  been  modified  in  later  years,  they  may  still  be  regarded 
as  probably  of  very  considerable  antiquity,  long  antedating  at 
any  rate  the  whole  historic  period.  The  analysis  of  the  measure- 
ments of  these  crania  given  by  Hansen,2  shows  the  series  to  be 
almost  purely  dolichocephalic,  but  overwhelmingly  of  the  platyr- 
rhine  types,  the  Proto-Negroid  amounting  to  approximately 
50  per  cent,  while  the  Proto- Australoid  is  secondary  with  25  per 
cent.  The  Caspian  type  is  only  slightly  less  important.  The 
crania  are  notably  disharmonic,  wide  faces  being  associated  with 
narrow  skulls,  and  are  all  rather  notably  prognathic.  Contrary, 
thus,  to  the  frequent  statement,  these  Lagoa  Santa  crania  are 
not  of  the  same  type  as  the  modern  Botocudo,  but  point  to  the 
presence  at  an  early  date  of  Proto-Negroid-Proto-Australoid  peo- 
ples, who  appear  not  to  have  extended  to  the  coast. 

Turning  to  the  living  population  of  the  Highlands,  we  find 
apparent  evidence  of  the  presence  of  the  descendants  of  these 
early  folk  in  the  data  collected  by  Ehrenreich3  and  Ranke.4  Lin- 
guistically the  area  is  one  of  considerable  complexity,  since  we 
have  here  tribes  representing  on  the  one  hand  four  of  the  great 
stocks,  the  Ges,  Arawak,  Carib,  and  Tupi,  all  but  the  first  of  which 


1 Lund,  1842. 
'Ehrenreich,  1897. 


459 


2 Hansen,  1888. 

4 Ranke,  K.  E.,  1904. 


460 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


have  their  main  areas  of  distribution  in  other  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent; and  also  tribes  such  as  the  Bororo,  Caraya,  Trumai,  etc.,  be- 
longing to  or  by  themselves  constituting  small  stocks,  confined 
to  this  highland  area.  The  distribution  among  these  tribes  of 
the  physical  types  is,  I believe,  significant.  The  Caraya  and 
also  probably  the  Cherentes  (belonging  to  the  Ges  stock),  together 
with  the  Arawakan  Mehinaku  and  Paressi  farther  west,  are  all 
primarily  dolichocephalic,  with  a strong  predominance  of  the 
platyrrhine  types,  allied  thus  to  the  Lagoa  Santa  Proto-Ne- 
groids. All  the  other  tribes  are  on  the  contrary  primarily  brachy- 
cephalic,  the  Cayapo,  one  of  the  most  westerly  of  the  Ges  tribes, 
the  Bororo,  and  the  Cariban  Bakairi  having  a predominance  of 
the  platyrrhine  elements,  the  Nahuqua  (also  Carib),  the  Tupian 
Aueto,  and  the  independent  Trumai  being,  on  the  other  hand, 
more  strongly  leptorrhine.  Portraits  of  a Bororo  and  of  a Paressi 
are  given  on  Plate  XLII,  Fig.  4,  and  Plate  XLIII,  Fig.  1. 

A logical  explanation  of  these  facts  which  might  be  suggested 
is  as  follows.  Although  we  know  practically  nothing  of  the  main 
mass  of  the  Ges  tribes  lying  between  the  Caraya  and  the  coastal 
strip  of  Tupi  tribes,  we  seem  to  be  justified  by  the  little  that  we 
do  know,  in  assuming  that  they  were  probably  in  the  main  char- 
acterized by  a predominance  of  the  platyrrhine,  dolichocephalic 
factors,  and  thus  with  the  Caraya  allied  to  the  ancient  popula- 
tion of  the  Highlands  whose  remains  were  found  in  the  Lagoa 
Santa  caves.  The  Mehinaku  and  Paressi  may  furthermore  be 
regarded  as  remnants  of  this  same  stratum,  who  have  in  some 
way  become  “ Arawakized”  in  speech,  for,  although  linguistically 
they  are  to  be  grouped  with  the  Arawak  farther  west  and  north, 
their  physical  characteristics  are  radically  different  from  all  other 
known  tribes  of  this  stock,  who  are  primarily  and,  as  a rule,  over- 
whelmingly brachycephalic.  Lest  this  suggestion  of  such  a 
complete  change  of  language  be  thought  to  be  merely  an  arbi- 
trary and  very  improbable  assumption,  it  should  be  noted  that 
similar  radical  modification  and  complete  change  of  language 
has  been  repeatedly  observed  and  reported  by  various  authori- 
ties in  other  parts  of  the  continent. 


Fig.  i.  Paressi. 


Fig.  2.  Quechua. 


Fig. 


Huilliche. 


Fig.  4.  Caduveo. 

PLATE  XLIII. 


(Guaycuru.) 


BRAZILIAN  HIGHLANDS 


461 


The  Bororo,  Baka'iri,  and  Cayapo  on  the  other  hand,  are  to 
be  considered  as  belonging  to  a later  immigrant  stratum  char- 
acterized by  a large  factor  of  the  brachycephalic,  platyrrhine 
types,  of  which  the  Bororo  appear  to  be  the  present  represen- 
tatives. In  the  case  of  the  Cayapo  we  have  apparently  another 
instance  of  linguistic  modification,  by  which  the  older  Ges  tribes 
imposed  their  speech  upon  the  immigrant  group.  The  position 
of  the  Bakalri  is  interesting,  for  the  large  proportion  which  they 
show  of  dolichocephalic,  platyrrhine  factors  in  comparison  with 
either  the  Bororo  or  the  Cayapo,  suggests  that  they  represent 
the  advance  guard  of  the  brachycephalic  immigrants,  who  thus 
mixed  to  a greater  degree  with  their  long-headed  predecessors. 

The  Trumai,  Aueto,  and  Nahuqua,  who  are  in  large  measure 
of  the  leptorrhine,  brachycephalic  types,  may  then  be  thought 
of  as  representing  a third  immigrant  stream,  penetrating  and  in 
part  superimposed  upon  the  two  older  strata.  Here  again,  as 
in  the  previous  instance,  the  small  independent  stock  (in  this 
case  the  Trumai)  shows  the  largest  proportion  of  the  new  types 
and  these  are  associated  mainly  with  the  immediately  preceding 
platyrrhine  forms,  whereas  the  Carib-speaking  Nahuqua  and 
Tupi-speaking  Aueto  represent  these  same  latest  immigrants, 
mixed  in  the  first  case  with  the  older  Negroid- Australoid  types 
(as  also  among  the  Bakairi),  in  the  second  mingled  with  the  still 
older  Caspian-Mediterranean  types  who  were  mainly  distributed 
along  the  coast. 

The  third  and  last  of  the  areas  in  which  dolichocephalic  types 
were  important  differs  from  the  others  in  being  much  less  con- 
tinuous. Reference  to  the  maps,  Plates  XXXVIII  and  XXXIX, 
shows  that  dolichocephalic  factors  occur  in  strength  in  three 
widely  separated  spots;  the  Chilean  coast  near  Coquimbo,  the 
Paltalcalo  rock  shelters  on  the  Jubones  River  near  the  Ecuador- 
Peru  border,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Orinoco  rapids  in  Vene- 
zuela. 

The  crania  found  by  Latcham1  under  what  are  apparently 
recent  marine  deposits  on  raised  beaches  near  Coquimbo,  are 

1 Latcham,  1904  b. 


462 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


obviously  of  very  considerable,  although  not  accurately  deter- 
mined, antiquity.  The  male  crania  (four  in  number) . which  are 
in  fairly  good  preservation  clearly  indicate  the  dominance  of 
dolichocephalic  factors,  but  determination  of  the  types  pres- 
ent is  impossible  on  account  of  the  absence  of  nasal  measure- 
ments. If  we  take  into  consideration  such  other  fragmentary 
information  as  we  possess  from  other  parts  of  Chile,  there  is 
some  reason  to  believe  that  these  crania  are  platyrrhine,  and 
that  the  Proto-Negroid  type  is  that  chiefly  represented,  but 
offset  by  a nearly  equal  element  of  the  Alpine.  Much  farther 
to  the  south,  in  Valdivia  and  among  the  Pehuenche  of  the  Andes,1 
clear  indication  of  the  presence  of  the  Proto-Negroid  type  is 
found,  often  with  considerable  prognathism.  That  this  is  to  be  at- 
tributed to  recent  Negro  mixture  seems  unlikely.  All  the  rest  of 
the  modern  population  is  strongly  brachycephalic.  If  the  some- 
what uncertain  identification  of  the  Proto-Negroid  type  among 
these  crania  from  Coquimbo  is  not  correct,  then  the  dolicho- 
cephalic factor  must  be  Caspian,  which  would  indicate  that  on 
the  western  as  well  as  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  southern  part 
of  the  continent,  this  type  was  very  early  present. 

Doctor  Rivet  has  described2  a large  collection  of  crania  taken 
by  him  from  ancient  rock  shelters  at  Paltalcalo  on  the  Jubones 
River  in  extreme  southwestern  Ecuador.  The  archaeological 
evidence  is  clear  that  these  represent  not  merely  a pre-European 
people  but  one  long  antedating  the  historic  Canaris  who  held 
this  region  at  the  period  of  the  Conquest.  Unfortunately,  Doc- 
tor Rivet  has  as  yet  published  in  full  only  a small  selection  of 
this  extremely  important  series.  From  the  material  as  given, 
however,  we  know  that  the  dolichocephalic  factors  outnumber 
the  brachycephalic  more  than  two  to  one,  and  that  among  this 
dolichocephalic  majority  the  Proto-Negroid  and  Proto-Aus- 
traloid types  are  largely,  perhaps  very  largely,  represented.  In 
so  far  then  as  these  two  types  are  here  present,  we  may  say  that 
this  prehistoric  people  of  rather  simple  culture,  were  affiliated 
with  the  dolichocephalic  substratum  in  the  Brazilian  Highlands. 

1Latcham,  1909;  Flores,  1905;  Guevara,  1899,  8 Rivet,  1908. 


BRAZILIAN  HIGHLANDS 


463 


It  may  be  noted,  further,  that  a significant  element  of  Caspian- 
Mediterranean  types  is  also  present. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  rapids  of  the  Orinoco,  many  caves  have 
been  discovered,  some  of  which  contained  large  numbers  of  urn 
burials.  The  large  series  of  crania  secured  by  Marcano1  shows 
that  two  quite  different  types  of  people  must  have  utilized  these 
caves  for  burial  purposes.  In  all  but  one  of  the  sites  investigated 
the  undeformed  crania  show  a predominance  of  brachycephalic 
factors;  at  Ipiiboto,  however,  the  reverse  was  the  case,  and  doli- 
chocephalic elements  were  present  in  small  majority,  the  domi- 
nant type  being  apparently  the  Proto-Australoid,  which  com- 
prised about  half  the  total  factors  present.  In  Marcano’s  opinion, 
these  Ipiiboto  crania  were  probably  those  of  the  early  Otomac 
or  Yaruro,  two  small  local  stocks.  At  one  other  site,  that  of 
Cucurital,  this  same  dolichocephalic  type  was  actually  the  most 
important  single  factor,  although  in  the  aggregate  the  brachy- 
cephalic elements  slightly  outweighed  the  total  of  the  dolicho- 
cephalic forms.  Doctor  Marcano  states  that  some  of  the  Cu- 
curital burials  were  probably  modern  Guahiba,  another  small 
local  stock,  but  as  he  does  not  indicate  which  burials,  and  as  we 
know  nothing  of  the  character  of  the  Guahiba,  the  information  is 
of  little  value.  The  same  author  has,  however,  given  the  mea- 
surements of  a small  series  of  crania  from  the  Piaroa,2  another 
small  stock,  living  just  east  of  the  Orinoco  in  this  same  region. 
These  agree  most  strikingly  with  the  Ipiiboto  series  and  show 
nearly  60  per  cent  of  the  Proto-Australoid  type. 

We  have  here  again,  as  in  Ecuador  and  perhaps  in  north- 
ern Chile,  dolichocephalic  elements  which  are  allied  more  or  less 
closely  with  the  ancient  and  some  of  the  modern  occupants  of 
the  Brazilian  Highlands.  The  fact  that  the  modern  tribes  show- 
ing these  characters  are,  here  in  Venezuela,  members  of  the  series 
of  small,  isolated  stocks  which  fringe  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Andes,  and  which  have  been  thought  to  be  the  remnants  of  an 
older  stratum  of  population,  is  not  without  significance.  Al- 
though adequate  data  are  lacking  for  their  certain  determina- 

1 Marcano,  1893.  2 Marcano,  1890  a. 


464 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


tion,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  dolichocephalic  factors  survive 
elsewhere  in  the  Andean  region.  Thus  the  Timote,1  another  of 
these  small  stocks,  on  the  Venezuelan-Colombian  border,  seem 
to  show  a considerable  dolichocephalic,  leptorrhine  element; 
undeformed  dolichocephalic  crania  have  been  found  in  small 
numbers  in  the  ancient  cemeteries  along  the  Peruvian  coast,  at 
Trujillo,  Pachacamac  and  elsewhere;2  the  ancient  Aimara  of  the 
Bolivian  plateau  are  said  by  Hrdlicka3  to  have  been  undoubtedly 
long-headed,  although  he  has  published  no  data  upon  them. 
From  the  fact,  however,  that  the  undeformed  (?)  ancient  crania 
reported  by  Flower4  from  the  southern  portion  of  the  plateau, 
show  a large  factor  (40  per  cent)  of  the  platyrrhine,  dolicho- 
cephalic types,  it  seems  probable  that  it  was  these  types  which 
were  present  in  the  early  Aimara.  Here  again,  then,  as  in  Ecua- 
dor and  Venezuela,  we  have  links  with  the  ancient  people  of  the 
Brazilian  Highlands. 

Summing  up  the  results  of  the  foregoing  examination  of  the 
regions  where  dolichocephalic  types  are  or  have  been  in  the  ma- 
jority in  the  South  American  continent,  we  may  say  that,  where- 
as the  southeastern  leptorrhine  group  occupies  an  essentially 
continuous  strip  from  the  middle  Brazilian  coast  to  the  southern 
tip  of  the  continent  (with  a possible  outlier  on  the  coast  of  north- 
ern Chile),  the  platyrrhine  group  seems  to  be  split  into  an  eastern 
and  a western  division,  occupying  respectively  the  Brazilian 
Highlands  and  a series  of  scattered  areas  on  the  eastern  and  west- 
ern flanks  of  the  Andean  chain.  Between  these  two  extends  a 
great  area  in  which,  so  far  as  is  known,  brachycephalic  types 
prevail. 

1 Marcano,  189:.  2 Hrdlicka,  1911. 


3 Hrdlicka,  op.  cit. 


4 Flower,  1879. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  BRACHYCEPHALS 

The  areas  in  which  we  have  evidence  of  the  preponderance 
of  brachycephalic  factors  lie  scattered  over  almost  the  whole 
of  the  continent,  but  with  a strong  tendency  to  mass  themselves 
in  the  western  and  central  regions.  In  North  America  it  was 
possible  to  show  something  of  a definite  geographic  grouping  of 
the  platyrrhine  and  leptorrhine  forms;  here,  however,  the  data 
are  so  incomplete  that  any  similar  attempt  is  precarious. 

For  the  whole  northern  portion  of  the  Andean  area  in  Co- 
lombia and  Ecuador,  occupied  chiefly  by  tribes  of  the  Chibchan 
stock,  data  of  value  are  practically  absent.1  The  few  crania 
from  the  mounds  and  deep  well-graves  of  Ecuador  published  by 
Jijon  y Caamano 2 suggest,  however,  that  their  makers  were 
of  somewhat  different  types,  those  whose  remains  are  found  in 
the  mounds  being  almost  purely  brachycephalic  (probably  in 
the  main  Alpine),  whereas  the  burials  in  the  deep  graves  show 
that  the  people,  although  still  in  majority  brachycephalic,  had 
nevertheless  a considerable  dolichocephalic  factor,  -which  it  is 
tempting  to  regard  as  possibly  due  to  the  survival  of  an  older 
type. 

Farther  southward  the  almost  universal  practice  of  artificial 
deformation  which  renders  most  of  the  material  from  the  north 
useless,  continues  to  make  the  determination  of  head-form  dif- 
ficult. A small  series,  however,  of  undeformed  (?)  skulls  from 
Cajamarca  in  northern  Peru,3  shows  that  brachycephalic  ele- 
ments prevail  in  very  large  majority,  the  Alpine  type  being  that 
which  is  clearly  in  the  lead.  No  adequate  study  has  yet  been 
made  of  the  vast  collections  of  crania  from  the  great  cemeteries 
along  the  Peruvian  coast.  That  the  prevailing  types  were  in 
great  majority  brachycephalic,  there  seems  no  doubt,  and  ap- 

1 Broca,  1875.  2 Jijon  y Caamano,  1915.  3Giachetti,  1905. 

465 


46G 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


parently  the  leptorrhine  forms  which  prevail  toward  the  north 
give  way  to  platyrrhine  in  the  south.1  Undeformed,  dolicho- 
cephalic skulls  are,  however,  occasionally  found,  and  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  these  are  more  abundant  in  the  very  oldest 
sites,  such  as  those  of  the  shell-heaps. 

If  we  lack  good  material  from  the  coast,  we  have  a consider- 
able body  of  data  for  the  highland  region.  The  most  important 
series  of  crania  is  that  obtained  from  Macchu  Pichu2  not  far  from 
Cuzco.  The  crania  from  this  great  Inca  site,  which  seems  prob- 
ably (?)  to  be  one  which  had  ceased  to  be  occupied  for  some 
time  before  the  period  of  the  Conquest,  show  a small  majority 
of  brachycephalic  factors,  in  which  the  Palae-Alpine  type  is  the 
most  prominent,  and  fair-sized  minorities  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  Proto-Australoid  types.  Much  the  larger  number  of  skulls, 
however,  are  those  of  females,  and  these  show  a considerably 
greater  predominance  of  round-headed  forms,  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  an  Alpine  factor,  which  was  of  little  importance  among 
the  males.  The  significance  of  this  difference  is  not  yet  clear. 

For  the  living  population  of  Quechua  and  Aimara  stocks  we 
possess  excellent  data  in  the  studies  of  Ferris3  and  Rouma4;  Cher- 
vin,5  unfortunately,  giving  nothing  but  the  cephalic  index.  From 
these  sources  it  appears  that  the  pure-blood  Quechua  of  Cuzco 
and  Apurimac  is  predominantly  round-headed,  with  the  broad- 
nosed factors  in  large  majority;  the  minority  element  being 
Caspian-Mediterranean  in  quite  considerable  numbers.  The 
Quechua,  farther  to  the  southeast  in  Bolivia,  together  with  the 
Aimara,  are  more  strongly  brachycephalic,  and  have  as  the  lead- 
ing type  the  Alpine.  In  the  dolichocephalic  factors  present  the 
Quechua  and  Aimara  here  differ,  the  former  having  the  platyr- 
rhine, the  latter  the  leptorrhine  types  more  strongly  represented. 
The  southern  Quechua  thus  differ  from  those  about  and  north  of 
Cuzco,  not  only  in  being  more  strongly  round-headed,  but  in  hav- 
ing a different  long-headed  element  present  as  a minority.  We 

1 Ranke,  J.,  1900;  Dorsey,  1895;  Flower,  1879;  Schreiber,  1908-09;  Sergi,  1887; 
Vram,  1900;  P.  M.;  A.  N.  S.  P.;  A.  M.  N.  H. 

2 Eaton,  1916.  3 Ferris,  1916.  See  also  Lorena,  1911. 

4 Rouma,  1913.  6 Chervin,  1907. 


THE  BRACHYCEPHALS 


467 


may,  perhaps,  regard  these  southern  Quechua  as  a later  group, 
the  result  of  the  historic  expansion  of  the  people  under  Inca  leader- 
ship, whereas  the  Cuzco  and  Apurimac  group  represent  the  older, 
more  aboriginal  body.  Much  more  investigation  is  needed,  how- 
ever, before  the  considerable  differences  between  these  upland 
peoples  can  be  accounted  for.  An  example  of  the  Quechua  type 
is  given  on  Plate  XLIII,  Fig.  2. 

Farther  south  there  is  a nearly  complete  gap  in  our  data  until 
we  get  beyond  Valparaiso,  in  Chile.  A small  group  of  crania 
from  the  extreme  southwestern  portion  of  Bolivia1  show  a strong 
predominance  of  brachycephalic  elements,  the  Palae- Alpine  type 
being  in  the  large  majority. 

With  the  Araucanian  tribes  of  Chile  and  portions  of  the  west- 
ern Argentine  pampas,  we  come  to  more  adequate  material  once 
more.  The  Araucanians2  north  of  Valdivia  are  very  strongly 
brachycephalic,  the  Alpine  type  being  that  in  the  majority,  the 
dolichocephalic  minority  being  mainly  of  the  platyrrhine  types. 
The  Araucanians  also  extended  east  of  the  Andes,3  and  there 
are  many  reasons  for  believing  that  this  may  have  been  their 
earlier  home,  and  that  they  came  west  to  the  Chilean  coast  not 
very  long  before  the  Inca  conquest  of  the  region,  a century  or 
two  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards.  In  later,  post-Spanish 
times  they  again  spread  over  the  pampas,  as  far  east  even  as  the 
province  of  Buenos  Aires.  Throughout  the  area  over  which 
they  have  extended  they  exhibit  a considerable  uniformity, 
being  everywhere  primarily  of  the  Alpine  type.  The  more  east- 
erly groups,  however,  replace  the  broad-nosed  dolichocephalic 
minority  by  a narrow-nosed  form,  derived  probably  from  the 
dominant  factor  of  this  type  among  the  east-coast  peoples.  A 
portrait  of  a member  of  the  Huilliche  tribe  of  this  stock  is  shown 
on  Plate  XLIII,  Fig.  3. 

Of  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  Calchaqui  who  occupied 
parts  of  the  more  arid,  western  margin  of  the  Argentine  pampas, 
and  extended  well  up  into  the  Highlands,  where  their  border 

1 Flores,  1895.  2 Latcham,  1904  a;  1909. 

3 Puccioni,  1912;  Ten  Kate,  1892;  Virchow,  1874. 


468 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


marched  with  the  higher  culture  of  the  Bolivian  plateau,  little 
can  be  said,  as  practically  every  skull  so  far  known  is  strongly 
deformed.  What  evidence  there  is,  indicates  the  predominance 
here  also  of  the  Alpine  type.1 

For  the  rest  of  the  pampas  and  for  the  Chaco  region  we  are 
in  much  the  same  plight.  The  Guaycuru2  seem  to  have  a ma- 
jority of  the  Palae-Alpine  type,  with  a strong  Caspian-Mediter- 
ranean  minority.  The  Matacco3  farther  north  are  possibly  in 
the  majority  long-headed.  The  Tupian  Chiriguano,4  in  the  Bo- 
livian Chaco,  appear  to  be  much  like  the  Guaycuru.  Other  tribes 
of  the  same  stock,  such  as  the  Guayaki5  of  Paraguay  and  the 
Guarani6  of  Sao  Paolo  in  southern  Brazil,  show  these  same  features, 
so  that  we  seem  to  be  justified  in  regarding  the  whole  southern 
portion  of  this  stock,  at  any  rate,  as  essentially  homogeneous. 
Since  this  region  is  generally  regarded  as  the  area  from  which 
the  stock  has  spread  to  the  east  and  north,  it  would  be  of  much 
interest  to  compare  some  of  these  migrants  with  the  parent  group. 
Data  are,  however,  lacking  except  for  the  Aueto7  of  the  Brazilian 
Highlands  area,  already  referred  to  on  a previous  page.  They 
show  a dominance  of  the  Alpine  element  and  may  be  a people 
originally  of  different  stock;  but  Tupi-ized  in  speech.  Be  that 
as  it  may,  there  was  evidently  a rather  large  area  in  the  region 
between  the  Amazon  forest  and  the  pampas  in  which  the  Palse- 
Alpine  type  was  the  dominant  factor.  The  portraits  given  on 
Plate  XLIII,  Fig.  4,  and  Plate  XLIV,  Fig.  1,  may  be  taken  as 
examples  of  this  group. 

Our  knowledge  of  virtually  the  whole  of  the  vast  Amazon 
basin  and  of  the  region  north  of  it  in  Venezuela  and  the  Guianas 
is  very  scanty.  Only  at  two  or  three  widely  separated  points  are 
any  data  available.  The  few  measurements  taken  by  Ehren- 
reich8  of  the  Yamamadi,  Ipurina,  and  Pammari,  Arawak  tribes 
of  the  Purus  River  region,  show  that  among  them  brachycephalic 
factors  largely  predominate,  the  platyrrhine  forms  prevailing  as 

1 Ten  Kate,  1896.  2 Lehmann-Nitsche,  1904.  3 Otis,  1871. 

4 Ten  Kate,  1905.  6 Ten  Kate,  1897.  6 Krone,  1906, 

7 Ranke,  K.  E.,  1904.  8 Ehrenreich,  1897. 


THE  BRACIIYCEPHALS 


469 


a rule.  The  same  holds  true  of  the  Wapisiana,  Taruma,  and 
other  Arawak  tribes  of  the  Venezuela-British  Guiana  border  de- 
scribed by  Farabee.1  These,  however,  exhibit  a larger  dolicho- 
cephalic element,  which  is  mainly  also  of  the  broad-nosed  types. 
For  the  great  mass  of  tribes  belonging  to  the  Carib  stock  I have 
been  able  to  find  data  only  for  the  Galibis2  of  the  French  Guiana 
shore,  who,  if  it  is  fair  to  judge  from  the  half-dozen  individuals 
measured,  are  primarily  of  the  Alpine  type.  The  Warrau  of  the 
Orinoco  delta  seem,  on  the  averages  given  by  Ten  Kate,3  to  be 
in  general  similar.  Cranial  data  are  extremely  scarce.  That 
from  the  Goajiro,4  an  Arawak-speaking  tribe  in  the  peninsula 
of  that  name  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo,  shows  a large  per- 
centage of  Alpine  factors,  and  also  a considerable  Ural  element 
found  here  for  the  first  time  in  South  America  in  any  strength. 
The  urn  burials  in  the  Aragua5  district  of  northwestern  Vene- 
zuela reveal  a somewhat  similar  situation,  except  that  here  the 
Ural  type  is  present  in  much  smaller  proportions,  and  there  is 
a considerable  minority  of  the  Proto-Australoid  type.  Examples 
of  Arawak  types  from  northwestern  Brazil  and  from  Guiana  are 
given  on  Plate  XLIV,  Figs.  2 and  3. 

The  crania  obtained  by  Marcano6  from  the  burial  caves  near 
the  Orinoco  rapids  supply  us  with  the  last  of  our  cranial  material. 
It  may  be  remembered  that  at  one  of  these  sites,  known  as  Ipii- 
boto,  long-headed  factors  were  in  the  majority,  connecting  what 
is  an  apparently  earlier  population  with  the  long-headed  peoples 
of  the  Brazilian  Highlands.  At  the  other  two  sites,  Cucurital 
and  Cerro  de  Luna,  brachycephalic  factors  prevail,  in  the  former 
slightly,  in  the  latter  to  a large  degree.  In  this  latter  the  Ural 
type  is  in  the  majority,  in  the  former  it  is  secondary,  whereas 
in  the  series  from  Ipiiboto  it  drops  to  third  place.  Further- 
more, at  Cucurital  the  broad-nosed,  long-headed  forms,  although 
not  so  important  as  at  Ipiiboto,  are  nevertheless  of  considerable 
strength.  There  seems,  thus,  to  be  a rough  sort  of  progression, 


farabee,  1918. 

3 Ten  Kate,  op.  cit. 
5 Marcano,  1893. 


2 Manouvrier,  1882;  Ten  Kate,  1887. 

4 Marcano,  1890  b;  Virchow,  1886  c. 

6 Marcano,  1893. 


470 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


from  the  Ipiiboto  series,  through  that  of  Cucurital,  to  Cerro  de 
Luna,  the  Aragua  sites,  and  the  Goajiro,  such  that  the  platyr- 
rhine,  dolichocephalic  types  decrease  in  importance  regularly; 
the  Palae- Alpine  element  remains  unchanged;  while  the  Alpine 
and  especially  the  Ural  factors  increase  regularly  to  a dominant 
position.  This  seems  to  indicate  the  flooding  of  an  area  formerly 
characterized  by  a majority  of  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Ne- 
groid types  by  peoples  primarily  of  Alpine  and  Ural  affiliations. 
The  Goajiro  stand  out  somewhat  from  the  rest  by  their  large 
proportion  of  the  Palae-Alpine  type,  and  in  this  agree  with  the 
other  tribes  of  Arawak  speech  which  we  know.  The  Carib,  on 
the  other  hand,  may  rather  precariously  be  considered  as  in  the 
main  more  Alpine,  with  probably  a goodly  element  of  the  Ural 
type  as  well,  and  thus  allied  physically  to  what  seems,  on  the 
whole,  to  be  the  later  stratum  of  population  in  the  region.  The 
illustration  of  a Maku  Indian  from  northwestern  Brazil  given 
on  Plate  XLIV,  Fig.  4,  may  perhaps  be  taken  as  an  example  of 
the  older  dolichocephalic  types. 

Can  this  hypothesis  of  a relatively  recent  flooding  of  the  whole 
northern  border  of  the  South  American  continent  by  a people 
displaying  primarily  Alpine  and  Ural  types  be  brought  into 
any  reasonable  relation  with  the  rest  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
region?  It  seems  to  me  that  it  probably  can.  It  is  now  rather 
generally  admitted  as  a working  hypothesis  that  the  Carib  tribes 
have  moved  from  a proximate  area  of  dispersal  on  the  upper 
Xingu  River  south  of  the  Amazon,  northward  across  this  great 
river  and  perhaps  by  way  of  the  Rio  Negro,  toward  the  coast, 
disrupting  an  assumed  large  area  of  Arawak  tribes  and  peoples 
belonging  to  various  small,  independent  linguistic  stocks.  Reach- 
ing the  sea,  the  Carib  tribes  spread  in  both  directions  along  the 
shore,  and  at  the  period  of  the  discovery  had  already  conquered 
the  Arawak  peoples  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  and  were  raiding  those 
of  the  larger  islands  nearer  the  North  American  shore.  They 
were  also  engaged  in  similar  raids  along  the  eastern  side  of  Cen- 
tral America.  These  Carib  tribes  are,  on  admittedly  very  slen- 
der grounds,  supposed  to  have  been  mainly  of  Alpine  and  Ural 


Fig.  x-  Gtjarani. 


Fig.  3.  Taruma.  (Arawak.) 


Fig.  2.  ICarutana.  (Arawak.) 


PLATE  XLIV 


Fig.  4.  Maku. 


THE  BRACHYCEPHALS 


471 


types,  and,  if  this  be  true,  we  might  regard  their  invasion  as  the 
cause  of  the  assumed  replacement  of  an  earlier  population,  con- 
sisting partly  of  Palae- Alpine  Arawak  and  partly  of  the  pre- 
dominantly dolichocephalic  peoples  of  the  smaller  stocks,  by 
one  of  Alpine  and  Ural  type. 

The  hypothesis  of  the  northward  migration  of  the  Carib  group 
rests  largely  upon  the  discovery  of  one  or  two  small  Carib-speak- 
ing  tribes,  such  as  the  Bakairi  and  Nahuqua,  in  the  upper  Xingu 
region,  where  the  presence  of  Carib  peoples  had  not  previously 
been  known.  The  speech  of  the  Bakairi  being  the  most  archaic 
of  Carib  languages,  their  habitat  was  therefore  considered  to 
indicate  the  ancient  home  of  the  whole  stock,  whence  the  main 
mass  had  moved  northward  to  their  historic  sites.  Physically, 
however,  these  Bakairi  are  far  more  Palae- Alpine  than  Alpine,  and 
moreover  show  a considerable  element  of  the  dolichocephalic  fac- 
tors characteristic  of  the  supposedly  oldest  stratum  of  population 
in  the  region.  Since,  then,  these  supposedly  primitive  Caribs 
are  quite  different  in  physical  type  from  the  recent  stratum  of 
population  along  the  northern  border  of  the  continent,  how  can 
we  regard  these  as  essentially  Carib  speaking  immigrants?  The 
key  to  the  puzzle  lies,  I believe,  in  the  Nahuqua.  This  other 
Carib  people  in  the  Xingu  region  are,  as  stated  on  a previous 
page,  primarily  of  Alpine  and  Ural  types,  with  minorities  of 
the  broad-nosed  brachycephalic  and  dolichocephalic  factors. 
If  we  may  suppose  that  the  Bakairi  are  a people  of  the  older  Palae- 
Alpine  type,  which  had  blended  with  the  still  more  primitive 
dolichocephalic  population  of  the  area,  and  who  have  been 
“Caribized”  in  speech  by  a prehistoric  Carib  immigration  com- 
ing into  the  region  perhaps  from  the  west  or  southwest,  a pos- 
sible solution  of  the  puzzle  is  at  hand.  For  then  the  Nahuqua 
could  be  taken  as  representing  the  original  type  of  these  immi- 
grants who  would  thus  be  similar  to  the  Galibis,  the  only  other 
known  Carib  tribe  for  which  we  have  any  information.  Radical 
and  complete  changes  in  language  such  as  suggested  seem  to 
have  occurred  elsewhere  in  South  America,  so  that  this  part  of 
the  theory  is  not  as  impossible  as  it  might  seem  at  first  sight. 


472 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


The  entire  hypothesis  is,  of  course,  nothing  but  a guess,  which 
seems  to  agree  nevertheless  pretty  well  with  the  facts  as  at  pres- 
ent known. 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


In  the  preceding  pages  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  analyze 
the  physical  characteristics  of  the  peoples  of  the  world  on  the 
basis  of  eight  primary  types,  and  to  sketch  for  each  continent 
the  broad  outlines  of  its  racial  history.  Before  taking  up  the 
question  of  the  real  nature  of  these  “types,”  and  discussing  the 
various  problems  whose  consideration  has  been  deferred  to  this 
final  chapter,  it  will  be  well  briefly  to  examine  these  types  from 
the  world  rather  than  the  continental  standpoint,  summarizing 
the  results  of  our  previous  inquiry. 

We  may  begin  with  the  Proto- Australoid  type,  which,  on  the 
basis  of  the  archaeological  record  revealed  to  us  in  western  Eu- 
rope, is  the  oldest  which  is  certainly  identifiable.  The  proba- 
bility that  some  other  type  or  types  may  well  be  much  older 
yet  must  however,  in  view  of  the  Piltdown  skull  and  other  recent 
discoveries,  be  kept  clearly  in  view.  In  its  present  distribution 
the  Proto-Australoid  type  is  primarily  concentrated  around  the 
margins  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  In  Africa  it  is  of  greatest  promi- 
nence in  the  south  and  along  the  eastern  coast;  it  forms  a large 
element  in  the  population  of  the  whole  of  southern  India  and 
Ceylon;  it  is  apparently  fundamental  in  much  of  Melanesia  and 
in  Australia,  where,  especially  in  the  more  remote  southeastern 
corner  and  in  Tasmania,  it  reaches  a position  of  strong  dominance. 
As  a minor  element  we  find  it  all  along  the  eastern  border-lands 
of  Asia,  and  continuing  across  Bering  Strait,  in  isolated  areas 
along  the  western  littoral  of  the  American  continents,  everywhere 
representing  an  ancient  and  marginal  population.  The  only 
exception  to  this  primarily  western  distribution  in  the  New 
World  lies  in  its  strength  among  the  Iroquois  and  southern  Al- 
gonkian  tribes  southeast  of  the  Great  Lakes.  In  Europe  it  is 
nowhere  to-day  a factor  of  importance,  although  archaeological 
data  show  that  it  once  was,  and  it  has  been  shown  in  a previous 

475 


476 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


chapter  how  we  may  apparently  trace  its  gradual  withdrawal 
northward  and  northeastward  before  the  advance  of  the  later 
immigrant  peoples. 

For  this  type  an  original  or  earliest  ascertainable  homeland 
somewhere  on  the  tropical  margins  of  southeastern  Asia,  which 
at  this  early  period  included  the  present  islands  of  Sumatra, 
Java,  Borneo,  etc.,  may  with  considerable  certainty  be  assumed; 
the  area,  in  short,  in  which  in  late  Pliocene  times  the  Pithecan- 
thropus erectus  lived.  From  here  the  type  spread  southeast 
into  Australia,  where  its  very  early  presence  is  proved  by  the 
Talgai  skull,  and  where,  isolated  and  relatively  untouched  by 
the  later  streams  of  migration,  it  has  survived  in  relative  purity 
to  the  present  day.  Westward  the  type  followed  the  tropical 
shorelands  through  India  and  the  Arabian  coasts  to  Africa,  and 
by  way  of  the  Mediterranean  passed  into  western  Europe,  where 
it  appeared  in  early  Palaeolithic  times.  A third  branch  drifted 
slowly  northward  up  the  eastern  Asiatic  littoral,  and,  crossing 
into  America,  spread  thinly  through  the  continents,  and  per- 
haps mainly  along  the  western  shores.  We  may  probably  con- 
ceive of  this  type  as  originally  of  short  stature,  with  brown  skin 
and  straight  or  slightly  wavy  hair.  In  Europe  and  America, 
where  the  peoples  of  this  type  lived  for  thousands  or  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  years  in  a temperate  or  even  sub-arctic  climate,  the  skin 
gradually  lost  much  of  its  pigmentation  (as  discussed  more  fully 
in  considering  the  Proto-Negroid  type),  whereas  in  the  tropics, 
to  which  this  type  has  mainly  been  confined,  and  where  it  has 
become  blended  with  Proto-Negroid  peoples,  the  color  has  been 
intensified,  and  the  hair  often  become  strongly  curly  or  frizzly. 
Among  the  purest  representatives  of  the  type,  however,  i.  e., 
in  southeastern  Australia,  the  hair  is  often  almost  straight. 

The  belief  in  the  unity  of  this  type  wherever  found  rests 
upon  the  similarity  observable  between  series  of  crania  of  the 
type  from  different  parts  of  the  world.  In  our  analysis  we  have 
depended  only  on  three  indices,  and,  although  in  these  agree- 
ment might  exist,  in  other  respects  the  crania  might  well  differ. 
To  rest  the  theory  of  unity  of  type  upon  a wider  basis,  and  to 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


477 


show  that  the  separate  series  agree  not  only  in  respect  to  the 
three  indices  selected  as  criteria  but  also  in  absolute  measure- 
ments and  in  other  respects,  tables  showing  the  averages  for 
fourteen  absolute  measurements  and  indices  of  the  skull,  face, 
and  nose  have  been  prepared,  demonstrating  the  degree  of 
similarity  between  the  different  series. 


TABLE  1 

PROTO-AUSTRALOID  TYPE 
Average  Measurements  and  Indices 


Locality 
or  Tribe 

No. 

L. 

B. 

H. 

L.  B. 
Ind. 

L.H. 

Ind. 

B.  H. 
Ind. 

Ns. 

L. 

Ns. 

B. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Bi-Zy. 

Diam. 

Up. 

Fc. 

L. 

U.  Fac. 
Ind. 

Gnath. 

Ind. 

Cap. 

Australia 

20 

i go 

127 

i2g 

66.3 

67.8 

IOI 

4 

47 

27 

59 

I 

128 

65 

52.2 

102 

9 

1,283 

New  Britain .... 

7 

i go 

135 

130 

71 . 2 

68.4 

95 

9 

48 

27 

57 

5 

133 

67 

5°.i 

1,414 

Negro  and 

68.2 

48 

8 

6 

Egypt 

2 

igS 

131 

133 

66.6 

67.6 

IOI 

5 

49 

28 

56 

5 

i2g 

73 

56.5 

94 

7 

i>454 

Sardinia  and 

Sicily 

4 

185 

131 

125 

70.7 

67-5 

95 

3 

48 

26 

55 

I 

127 

65 

99 

6 

1,381 

England 

3 

191 

139 

i2g 

72.8 

67 -3 

92 

9 

49 

26 

54 

3 

131 

67 

51-5 

94 

2 

1,445 

Germany  (Neo- 

Iithic) 

2 

IQ3 

138 

126 

71.4 

65.2 

9i 

3 

48 

23 

57 

9 

112 

65 

55-9 

Ostiak 

7 

185 

I3S 

124 

72.9 

66.5 

9i 

2 

49 

27 

54 

7 

130 

1,357 

California 

6 

188 

133 

124 

70.6 

66.2 

93 

7 

51 

27 

53 

7 

136 

72 

52.7 

98 

7 

1,319 

Iroquois 

4 

196 

138 

135 

70.5 

68.1 

98 

I 

S3 

6 

(140) 

(51-7) 

(99 

9) 

The  small  number  of  crania  available  in  most  areas  renders 
the  comparison  of  very  uncertain  value,  but  taking  the  Aus- 
tralian and  Negro  series  the  close  similarity  is  apparent,  both  in 
indices  and  in  absolute  measurements.  With  the  latter  the  two 
American  series  agree  quite  closely,  indeed  more  closely  than  the 
New  Britain  series  with  the  near-by  Australian.  The  European 
data  are  so  meagre  that  comparison  means  little,  yet,  if  the  Sar- 
dinian, Sicilian,  and  English  figures  are  grouped  together,  their 
main  difference  from  the  others  lies  in  the  absence  of  the  mild 
prognathism  which  characterizes  the  other  groups.  The  extreme 
platyrrhiny  of  the  Australian  is  not  found  elsewhere,  although  ap- 
proached by  the  two  Neolithic  crania  from  Germany.  If  one  is 
willing  to  admit  that,  where  a type  has  been  exposed  to  the  influ- 
ence of  other  types  and  environments  for  thousands  of  years, 
some  modification  of  the  extreme  forms  of  the  type  itself  may  oc- 
cur, then  the  differences  here  observed  are  not  too  great  to  admit 
of  the  belief  that  all  the  series  are  fundamentally  related. 


478 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


The  Proto-Negroid  type  is,  to  an  even  greater  extent  than 
the  Proto-Australoid,  tropical  in  its  present  distribution,  and 
mainly  confined  to  areas  adjacent  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  In  Africa 
it  is  more  strongly  concentrated,  however,  in  the  west.  It  is  a 
large  factor  in  the  population  of  southern  India  and  the  aborig- 
inal remnants  in  the  Malay  peninsula;  in  Indonesia  it  survives  in 
some  importance  in  marginal  areas;  it  is  dominant  among  part 
of  the  population  of  Melanesia  and  northern  Australia,  and  has 
considerable  outliers  far  to  the  east  in  Easter  Island.  It  is  a 
minor  element  among  the  living,  and  was  a stronger  among  the 
ancient  peoples  of  southeast  Asia,  and  in  the  New  World  was 
prominent  in  the  Iroquois  and  southern  Algonkian  tribes  as  well 
as  among  the  ancient  peoples  of  the  region  on  both  sides  of  the 
Mexican  border,  in  the  Brazilian  Highlands,  and  in  Patagonia. 
In  Europe  its  traces  are  faint  to-day,  although  here  and  there 
individuals  exhibiting  its  characteristic  features  are  to  be  found. 
In  Neolithic  times,  however,  it  was  an  element  of  some  importance 
in  the  Baltic  region,  and  continued  to  be  a clearly  discernible 
factor  in  the  population  of  western  Russia  until  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  Palaeolithic  times  its  presence  has  universally  been  admitted 
on  the  northern  Mediterranean  coasts. 

For  the  earliest  assignable  homeland  or  focus  of  dispersion 
of  the  Proto-Negroid  type  we  may  probably,  although  not  cer- 
tainly, look  to  northern  and  western  Africa.  As  the  Proto-Aus- 
traloids streamed  west  along  the  southern  margin  of  Asia,  so  it 
may  be  supposed  the  Proto-Negroids,  probably  at  a later  date, 
drifted  eastward  through  India  to  southeastern  Asia  and  thence 
through  Indonesia  and  Melanesia  to  Australia,  with  a long  arm 
stretched  out  farther  through  central  Polynesia  as  far  as  Easter 
Island.  Like  the  presumably  older  Proto-Australoids,  they  fol- 
lowed northward  up  the  eastern  Asiatic  borderlands  and  pene- 
trated to  the  New  World,  drifting,  or  being  later  driven  by  other 
immigrants,  southward  and  toward  its  eastern  shores.  From 
Africa,  again,  they  worked  their  way  northward  into  western 
Europe  in  late  Palaeolithic  times,  ultimately  reaching  the  Baltic 
region  perhaps  by  way  of  the  Black  Sea  as  well  as  through  France. 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


479 


In  stature  probably  tall,  the  Proto-Negroids  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  been  dark  brown  in  skin  color,  with  strongly  curly 
or  frizzly  hair.  Among  those  who  remained  within  the  tropical 
environment  the  pigmentation  was  intensified,  the  hair  became 
increasingly  woolly,  so  that  the  Negroid  peoples  to-day  may  be 
regarded  as  much  blacker  and  with  hair  much  woollier  than  their 
remote  ancestors  of  thirty  or  forty  thousand  years  ago.  Those 
branches  of  the  type,  however,  which  passed  northward  into 
temperate  and  for  a time  perhaps  sub-arctic  environment  may 
be  supposed  in  the  course  of  millennia  to  have  lost  much  or  all 
of  their  original  pigmentation  and  frizzliness  of  hair.  I am  quite 
well  aware  that  such  a suggestion  of  radical  change  in  skin  color 
and  particularly  of  the  complete  loss  of  an  original  frizzly  hair 
is  certain  to  meet  with  an  immediate  denial  of  its  possibility. 
For  a change  in  pigmentation,  however,  I believe  a fair  case  can 
be  made  out;  as  regards  the  change  in  type  of  hair  the  question 
is  much  more  difficult,  yet  in  view  of  the  strong  similarities  in 
cranial  forms  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  the  conclusion  that  even  this 
seeming  impossibility  may  have  occurred. 

The  causes  of  pigmentation  are  not  yet  wholly  clear,  yet  there 
is,  I think,  general  agreement  to-day  that  the  environment  and 
food  of  the  tropics  is  an  important,  although  not  the  only,  deter- 
mining factor.  If  this  be  true,  I believe  it  is  legitimate  to  suppose 
that  a people  of  moderately  dark  skin  living  under  harsh  temper- 
ate or  sub-arctic  conditions  for  many  thousands  of  years,  might 
well  lose  their  pigmentation  in  large  measure.  In  Europe,  in 
the  region  surrounding  the  Baltic,  into  which  a branch  of  the 
early  Proto-Negroids  are  assumed  to  have  come,  a powerful  if  lit- 
tle understood  influence  toward  “bleaching”  has  made  itself  felt 
on  every  people  who  have  come  within  its  sphere.  Here,  and 
here  only  in  all  the  world,  are  peoples  found  who  are  predomi- 
nantly blond,  and  who,  although  they  are  alike  in  this  feature, 
yet  belong  to  sharply  contrasted  physical  types.  For  the  strongly 
brachy cephalic  and  primarily  Alpine  Finn  is  as  blond  as  the 
fairest  dolichocephalic  and  “Nordic”  Swede.  Here,  therefore, 
the  complete  disappearance  of  the  dark  pigmentation  might  be 


480 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


expected;  and  here  it  seems  actually  to  occur.  It  may  at  once 
be  said  in  opposition  to  any  such  theory  of  “bleached”  Negroid 
peoples,  that  we  can  observe  no  difference  in  skin  color  between 
the  American  Negro  and  his  kinsman  in  Africa;  that  the  one  is 
as  black  as  the  other,  although  the  American  Negro  is  no  longer 
living  in  the  tropics.  This  is  of  course  true,  but  in  fairness  it 
should  be  noted  that  the  bulk  of  the  Negroes  in  the  United  States 
still  live  in  the  Southern  States  where  the  environmental  con- 
ditions are,  although  not  tropical,  still  by  no  means  harsh  or 
comparable  to  those  found  in  the  Baltic  region  or  the  northeast 
of  Asia.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  we  know  of  no  groups 
of  Negroid  peoples  who  have  been  living  for  any  length  of  time, 
as  time  is  counted  in  the  development  of  the  human  race,  in  a 
distinctly  northern  area.  In  the  history  of  the  race,  which 
grows  longer  with  every  discovery,  we  now  have  indisputable 
evidence  of  man’s  existence  not  scores  but  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  years  ago;  there  is  therefore  time  for  very  profound  modi- 
fications to  take  place.  In  a period  thus  not  of  five  or  ten  gen- 
erations, which  would  include  our  longest  period  of  observation, 
but  of  five  or  ten  thousand,  may  we  not  reasonably  expect  ex- 
tremely significant  changes  to  have  occurred?  Add  to  this  the 
fact  that  the  original  Negroid  group  would  have  been  subject 
also  to  blending  with  other,  lighter-skinned  types,  and  the 
probability,  almost  the  certainty,  of  the  very  large  loss  of  pig- 
mentation seems  to  me  clear. 

The  problem  of  the  hair  is  much  more  troublesome.  It  is, 
perhaps,  conceivable  that  some  climatic  factor  enters  into  the 
question  here,  as  it  almost  certainly  does  in  the  case  of  pigmen- 
tation. Thus  as  the  latter  serves  a most  important  need  in  pro- 
tecting the  skin  from  the  effects  of  insolation,  may  not  the  frizzly, 
woolly  type  of  hair,  by  making  a natural  mat  which  by  its  in- 
cluded air-spaces  must  serve  as  a most  excellent  insulator  for 
the  brain  against  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun,  have  been  slowly 
developed  as  an  adaptation  likewise?  It  must  be  confessed  that 
this  problem  of  the  hair  is  a stumbling-block,  and  a very  real  one, 
in  the  way  of  the  theory  of  the  presence  of  the  Proto-Negroid 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


481 


type  among  peoples  who  show  no  trace  even  of  curly  hair.  Yet 
so  close  is  the  resemblance  in  the  major  measurements  and  pro- 
portions of  the  skull,  that  I feel  convinced  that  some  explanation 
may  yet  be  found  for  the  phenomenon. 

TABLE  2 

PROTO-NEGROID  TYPE 
Average  Measurements  and  Indices 


Locality 
or  Tribe 

No. 

L. 

B. 

H. 

L.  B. 
Ind. 

L.H. 

Ind. 

B.  H. 
Ind. 

Ns. 

L. 

Ns. 

B. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Bi. 

Zy. 

Dia. 

Up. 

Fc. 

L. 

Up. 

Fac. 

Ind. 

Gnath. 

Ind. 

Cap. 

Cameroon 

5 

170 

133 

137 

73-8 

76.6 

103.7 

48 

27 

57-6 

133 

67 

5°-5 

1,381 

Gaboon 

IO 

181 

133 

139 

73-2 

76.8 

104.9 

48 

26 

55-4 

128 

65 

51-4 

98.3 

1,417 

183 

133 

141 

72.5 

77.0 

107.0 

48 

29 

60.0 

130 

70 

54-7 

100.0 

Pre-Dynastic 

5 

181 

131 

72.4 

48 

25 

52.8 

67 

100.7 

1,275 

Germany  (Neo- 

lithic)  

2 

1 70 

132 

138 

73-5 

76.5 

104.7 

51-5 

510 

Australia 

s 

181 

124 

139 

68. 1 

76.5 

hi  .9 

45 

27 

60.5 

130 

62 

97-3 

1,316 

New  Britain 

9 

180 

I2g 

135 

71.8 

75-8 

103.8 

47 

26 

56.3 

134 

68 

50.5 

1,307 

East  New 

Guinea* 

20 

176 

125 

135 

71-5 

76.7 

107-3 

47 

25 

55-3 

126 

6l 

48.4 

1,248 

New  Zealand 

2 

189 

138 

143 

72.9 

75-7 

104.0 

49 

25 

52.1 

134 

69 

51-4 

97.6 

1,525 

Hawaii 

2 

170 

133 

140 

74.0 

78.0 

105.2 

47 

25 

52.5 

126 

6l 

48.2 

1,327 

Easter  Island 

6 

182 

131 

142 

71.7 

78.0 

108.2 

50 

27 

53-9 

128 

67 

527 

95  5 

1,376 

Algonkian  and 

Iroquois 

7 

184 

135 

142 

73-4 

77-5 

i°5  5 

45 

24 

53-9 

65 

(52.9) 

(94-5) 

* Dawson  Straits  and  Murua  (Woodlark). 


TABLE  3 

PROTO-AUSTRALOID  AND  PROTO-NEGROID  BLEND 
Average  Measurements  and  Indices 


Locality 
or  Tribe 

No. 

L. 

B. 

H. 

L.  B. 
Ind. 

L.H. 

Ind. 

B.  H. 
Ind. 

Ns. 

L. 

Ns. 

B. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Bi- 

Zy. 

Dia. 

Up. 

Fc. 

L. 

Up. 

Fac. 

Ind. 

Gnath. 

Ind. 

Cap. 

Cameroon 

9 

183 

i A3 

134 

73 . 7, 

72 . q 

100.0 

48 

26 

15  ■ 2 

68 

Gaboon 

10 

184 

133 

134 

72.6 

73.0 

100.4 

48 

27 

56 . 5 

13 1 

6.5 

50.4 

99.4 

i,39i 

Bantu 

20 

186 

132 

1 34 

71 . 1 

72 . 2 

101 . 6 

47 

27 

56.8 

68 

Pre-Dynastic  Egypt . 

20 

184 

130 

132 

70.7 

71.7 

101.3 

48 

26 

55-i 

122 

66 

53-6 

97-9 

1,359 

Australia 

20 

182 

123 

132 

67.8 

72.7 

106.  g 

46 

26 

57-4 

123 

65 

53-1 

100.3 

1,234 

New  Britain 

20 

183 

132 

133 

72.4 

72 .0 

48 

27 

Ainu 

5 

194 

141 

140 

73-2 

72.3 

98.9 

50 

27 

54-9 

139 

68 

48.7 

102.0 

1.552 

Algonkian 

6 

186 

72.8 

72 . 6 

48 

27 

133 

70 

52.5 

(1,465) 

Iroquois 

16 

190 

137 

138 

72 . 6 

72.3 

54-3 

The  demonstration  of  this  close  similarity  is  made  difficult, 
owing  to  the  very  small  number  of  Proto-Negroid  crania  avail- 
able from  non-Negroid  peoples.  That  the  number  exhibiting 
the  type  in  pure  form  should  among  these  peoples  be  few,  is  of 
course  expectable,  but  it  is  unfortunate  that  for  the  Iroquois, 
who  appear  to  show  it  so  strongly,  the  data  as  yet  available  are 


482 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


so  incomplete.  I shall  in  this  case  therefore  supplement  the  series 
showing  the  pure  Proto-Negroid  type  by  another  showing  the 
blend  between  this  and  the  Proto-Australoid,  and,  as  this  blend 
is  that  which  makes  up  the  majority  of  the  actual  African  as 
well  as  Oceanic  Negroids,  the  resemblance  will  be  equally  signif- 
icant. 

In  the  Proto-Negroid  table,  the  smallness  of  the  numbers  in 
the  series  makes  the  results  of  only  very  tentative  value,  yet 
on  the  face  of  it  the  table  indicates  a very  real  similarity  between 
the  different  groups.  The  Australian  crania  are  extreme  in  the 
narrowness  of  their  heads,  yet  all  are  clearly  dolichocephalic, 
the  higher  figure  for  the  small  Hawaiian  group  being  probably 
due  to  the  strong  brachycephalic  environment.  There  is  some 
variation  in  the  degree  of  platyrrhiny,  but  all  except  the  Neo- 
lithic German  crania,  and  those  from  New  Zealand  and  Hawaii, 
are  clearly  and  definitely  broad,  these  exceptions  being  doubt- 
less due  to  the  highly  marked  leptorrhiny  of  the  mass  of  the  popu- 
lation. The  same  holds  for  the  upper  facial  index,  which  is 
for  all  “mesen,”  except  in  the  New  Guinea  and  Hawaiian  cases, 
where  the  population  in  general  is  marked  by  very  broad  faces. 
The  African  series,  including  the  Pre-Dynastic  Egyptian  are  more 
prognathic  than  the  rest.  With  the  exception  of  having  a nose 
that  is  slightly  narrower  and  absolutely  smaller,  and  for  being 
probably  a little  less  prognathic,  the  Algonkian  and  Iroquois  series 
are  as  close  to  the  Negroid  groups  as  they  are  to  each  other.  In 
the  second  table,  the  figures  speak  for  themselves.  I want  to 
call  attention,  however,  to  the  extremely  close  similarity  be- 
tween the  Pre-Dynastic  Egyptian  series  and  those  from  the  Bantu 
and  the  Gaboon  and  Cameroon  Negroes,  as,  except  for  a face 
which  is  absolutely  slightly  smaller,  the  Egyptian  is  almost  the 
exact  duplicate  of  the  Negroids;  also  to  the  close  correspondence 
between  the  Iroquois  series  and  the  Negroids.  Unfortunately, 
the  former  series  is  not  complete,  but  as  far  as  it  goes,  the  paral- 
lelism is  striking. 

The  distribution  of  the  Caspian  type  to-day  is  a curious  one, 
since  the  areas  of  its  concentration  are  very  widely  separated. 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


483 


The  largest,  and  that  in  which  it  is  present  in  greatest  purity,  is, 
paradoxically  enough,  that  occupied  by  the  Eskimo,  the  second 
most  important  one  comprising  northern  and  northeastern  Africa. 
A third  area  extends  along  the  southeastern  coast  of  South  Amer- 
ica, while  a last  includes  Scandinavia  and  Great  Britain.  As  an 
important  minority  factor  the  type  is  very  widely  spread,  here 
and  there,  along  the  western  margin  of  Europe,  around  the  south- 
ern end  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  in  northern  India  (where  in  places 
it  is  strongly  dominant),  in  Tibet  (?),  in  China,  in  some  of  the 
islands  of  Micronesia,  in  New  Zealand,  and  in  isolated  places 
along  the  Pacific  shores  of  America.  How  is  this  curious  dis- 
tribution to  be  accounted  for?  Archaeological  and  historical 
evidences  come  to  aid  us  in  some  degree,  for  they  show  that  the 
type  has  been  present  in  northern  Africa,  at  least,  since  early 
Pre-Dynastic  times,  coming  in  apparently  from  the  east  and 
northeast.  They  show  also  that  the  peoples  of  this  type  first 
appeared  in  western  Europe  toward  the  end  of  the  Palaeolithic 
period,  here  again  coming  apparently  from  the  eastward,  and 
that  during  the  whole  Neolithic  period  and  later  they  increased 
greatly,  finalfy  concentrating  in  the  region  of  the  Baltic  and  west- 
ern Russia,  where  they  fused  with  other  types  to  form  the  Baltic 
or  “ Nordic”  race.  The  archaeological  evidence  furthermore  indi- 
cates that  in  the  Bronze  Age,  and  probably  long  before,  the  Cas- 
pian type  was  dominant  in  the  population  of  southern  Siberia, 
having  reached  China  and  Japan  by  the  end  of  Neolithic  times. 
We  know,  also,  that  in  the  middle  of  the  second  millennium  B.  C., 
or  thereabouts,  peoples  of  this  type  came  in  large  numbers  into 
northern  India  from  the  northwest.  For  the  New  World  we 
have  little  or  no  archaeological  or  historical  evidence,  and  must 
rely  upon  that  afforded  by  distribution,  which  would  indicate, 
from  the  extreme  marginal  position  in  which  the  type  is  found, 
that  it  was  one  of  the  oldest,  if  not  the  oldest,  in  the  continent. 

These  facts  seem  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  earliest  as- 
certainable homeland  for  peoples  of  this  type  lies  in  the  great  Eur- 
Asiatic  steppe  region  of  southeastern  Russia  and  southwestern 
Siberia,  north  of  the  great  plateau  belt  which  stretches  across 


484 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


Asia  from  northeast  to  southwest.  Tall  in  stature,  fair-skinned, 
probably  with  brown,  slightly  wavy  hair  and  hazel  eyes,  the 
people  of  this  type  had  inherent  in  them  a strong  tendency  toward 
blondness,  which,  whenever  the  conditions  favored,  became  more 
and  more  pronounced,  reaching  its  climax  in  the  Baltic  region. 
Although  we  have  as  yet  no  archaeological  evidence  proving  the 
existence  of  the  type  here  in  the  Eur-Asiatic  steppe  earlier  than 
Bronze  or  possibly  Neolithic  times,  we  must  probably  assume 
that  their  occupation  of  this  territory  goes  back  far  into  Palae- 
olithic times.  As  early  as  the  Aurignacian  period  we  know  that 
they  had  come  into  Europe  from  the  east,  and  I believe  that  they 
very  early  also  moved  eastward,  keeping  along  or  to  the  north  of 
the  margin  of  the  great  plateaus,  and  so  across  Bering  Strait  into 
America,  to  which  this  type  may  have  supplied  its  first  inhabi- 
tants. The  drift  in  this  direction  was,  however,  later  checked, 
and  the  expansion  turned  more  and  more  toward  the  south. 
Westward  into  Europe  the  current  long  continued.  In  Neolithic 
times  a great  branch  of  the  type  crossed  the  plateaus  eastward 
into  China  and  Japan,  and  southward  across  the  Iranian  plateau 
to  Arabia  and  northern  Africa.  Only  much  later  did  they  reach 
India  and  southeastern  Asia,  whence  a stream  of  small  propor- 
tions passed  on  out  into  the  Pacific. 

A so-called  “Caucasic”  element  has  long  been  mooted  in 
parts  of  Polynesia,  and  this  seems  on  the  basis  of  the  present 
analysis  of  the  data  to  be  confirmed.  But  the  suggestion  put 
forward  that  a similar  factor  came  also  into  America,  is  far  less 
likely  to  meet  with  acceptance  and  seems  at  first  sight,  like  the 
presence  of  a Proto-Negroid  element  there,  to  be  not  only  fanci- 
ful but  well-nigh  impossible.  It  is  true  that  at  various  times 
the  suggestion  has  been  put  forward  that  the  Eskimo  crania 
showed  resemblance  to  some  of  the  early  north  European  forms, 
and  that  the  Eskimo  might  thus  be  the  survivors  of  Palaeolithic 
man.  The  theory  has,  however,  been  generally  rejected,  partly 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  accounting  for  the  transferrence  of 
the  people  from  Europe  to  Greenland  and  Arctic  America,  partly 
because  of  actual  differences  in  the  crania,  and  certain  special 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


485 


characteristics  of  the  Eskimo  crania  on  which  great  stress  has 
been  laid.  If,  however,  instead  of  comparing  Eskimo  crania 
in  general  with  a few  individual  skulls  of  very  early  date  in  Eu- 
rope, we  make  our  comparison  between  series  of  pure  types  from 
both  areas,  the  resemblances  become  much  more  striking. 


TABLE  4 
CASPIAN  TYPE 

Average  Measurements  and  Indices 


Locality 
or  Tribe 

No. 

L. 

B. 

H. 

L.  B. 
Ind. 

L.H. 

Ind. 

B.  H. 
Ind. 

Ns. 

L. 

Ns. 

B. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Bi-Zy. 

Diam. 

Up. 

Fac. 

L. 

Up. 

Fac. 

Ind. 

Gnath. 

Ind. 

Cap. 

Sardinia 

33 

184 

134 

139 

72.6 

75-6 

103.9 

55 

24 

44 

2 

135 

71 

52.7 

93 

O 

1,445 

Russia 

7 

186 

135 

142 

72 . 2 

76.2 

105.4 

44 

1 

Egypt* 

20 

l8l 

133 

139 

73-2 

76.6 

104.6 

52 

23 

44 

7 

126 

72 

57-9 

93 

3 

1,440 

Galla  and  Somali 

5 

l8l 

130 

138 

71-7 

76.2 

106.0 

44 

1 

1,366 

India 

5 

170 

1.3 1 

135 

73-2 

75-3 

103.3 

50 

21 

41 

9 

125 

94 

4 

U375 

New  Zealand . . . 

3 

186 

138 

141 

74-3 

76. 1 

102.6 

56 

25 

44 

5 

141 

71 

48.8 

98 

6 

i,47i 

Hawaii 

2 

l8l 

133 

139 

73-5 

76.; ; 

104-5 

53 

23 

44 

5 

(130) 

(74) 

(56.9) 

(1,300', 

Eskimo 

20 

185 

133 

140 

71.6 

76.5 

106.7 

54 

23 

42 

0 

139 

72 

53-o 

98 

5 

U54I 

* Eighteenth  Dynasty  and  earlier. 


TABLE  5 

CASPIAN  AND  MEDITERRANEAN  BLEND 
Average  Measurements  and  Indices 


Locality 
or  Tribe 

No. 

L. 

B. 

H. 

L.  B. 
Ind. 

L.H. 

Ind. 

B.  H. 
Ind. 

Ns. 

L. 

Ns. 

B. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Bi-Zy. 

Diam. 

Up. 

Fac. 

L. 

Up. 

Fac. 

Ind. 

Gnath. 

Ind. 

Cap. 

England 

5 

191 

140 

137 

73-2 

7i  • 5 

97 

6 

53 

24 

44-6 

135 

72 

5i 

8 

91 

7 

1,486 

Sweden* 

9 

IQO 

135 

136 

71.6 

71.4 

99 

5 

44.1 

53 

6 

1,515 

Sicily 

12 

183 

132 

133 

72.3 

72.6 

IOO 

3 

5i 

22 

42.3 

i,377 

Siwah  Oasis .... 

12 

184 

133 

133 

72.3 

72.2 

99 

9 

5i 

22 

44.2 

Germany 

12 

193 

141 

137 

72.3 

72.0 

98 

9 

42.8 

Chatham  Islands 

IO 

187 

138 

136 

73-6 

73-1 

98 

8 

57 

25 

44-5 

136 

75 

55 

2 

96 

I 

1,430 

Eskimo 

IO 

190 

132 

13d 

69.6 

72.5 

104 

3 

54 

22 

41.8 

138 

74 

53 

9 

97 

8 

1,545 

Patagonia 

IO 

193 

139 

139 

71.9 

72.4 

IOO 

7 

55 

24 

44-7 

141 

77 

55 

3 

97 

9 

1,466 

•Neolithic. 


Commenting  on  these  tables  it  may  be  noted  that  in  the  case 
of  the  Caspian  type  itself,  all  of  the  series  are  closely  accordant, 
almost  the  only  departure  from  agreement  being  in  the  case  of 
the  very  small  Maori  group,  which  has  a much  wider  face  and 
with  the  Eskimo  is  somewhat  more  prognathous.  The  facial  char- 
acter of  the  type  seems  to  be  clearly  lepten,  or  narrow,  and  the 
medium  form  in  the  Eskimo  may  very  reasonably  be  ascribed  to 
the  peculiar  broadening  of  the  face  due  to  overdevelopment  of  the 
chewing  muscles,  which  is  universally  ascribed  to  them.  The  Cas- 


486 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


pian-Mediterranean  blend  shows  somewhat  greater  variation,  as 
might  be  expected,  but  on  the  whole  corroborates  the  evidence 
given  by  the  pure  type.  I believe  that  if  we  only  had  available  a 
large  series  of  complete  individual  measurements  of  Reihengraber 
crania  from  Germany,  and  more  satisfactory  materials  from 
Russia,  that  the  correspondences  would  be  brought  out  much 
more  clearly,  but  even  on  the  basis  of  the  data  presented  it  seems 
to  me  that  a strong  case  has  been  made  out  for  the  relationship 
between  the  Eskimo  and  the  Old  World  representatives  of  the 
Caspian  type.  The  American  branch  has  been  slightly  modified 
in  one  or  two  particulars,  but  remains,  nevertheless,  substan- 
tially identical  with  the  parent  stock. 

The  Mediterranean  type,  although  widely  distributed  as  a 
minority,  is  at  present  found  in  any  considerable  strength  or 
purity  in  a rather  limited  area,  including  Arabia  and  northern 
Africa,  southern  Italy,  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  the  Iberian  Peninsula, 
Great  Britain,  and  the  western  coast  of  Norway.  It  is  of  less 
and  rather  minor  importance  among  the  higher  castes  in  north- 
western India,  among  some  groups  of  Eskimos,  and  formerly 
among  some  Indian  tribes  of  the  Pacific  coast.  Some  evidence 
in  regard  to  its  spread  is  afforded  by  archaeology.  Thus  we 
know  that  it  appeared  in  western  Europe  first  in  the  Aurig- 
nacian  period  of  later  Palaeolithic  times,  coming  apparently  along 
the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  strongly  represented 
in  the  Nile  delta  in  the  earliest  Dynastic  period,  but  only  after 
the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  became  a dominant  factor  in  Upper 
Egypt.  It  was  the  preponderant  type  in  the  earlier  Minoan 
periods  in  Crete,  and  prominent  in  the  Bronze  Age  in  southern 
Siberia.  In  the  New  World  and  Oceania  it  is  much  less  impor- 
tant than  the  Caspian,  and,  like  it,  is  found  only  in  marginal 
areas. 

The  earliest  ascertainable  focus  of  dispersion  of  the  Medi- 
terranean type  is  less  clear  than  that  of  the  Caspian,  but  the 
probabilities  seem  to  favor  the  region  of  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Black  Sea,  adjacent  on  the  southwest  to  the  Eur- 
Asiatic  homeland  of  the  Caspian  peoples.  Shorter  in  stature 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


487 


than  the  latter,  brunet  rather  than  fair  in  coloring,  the  Mediter- 
ranean type  very  early  spread  through  western  Europe,  possibly 
in  part  by  sea  along  the  shore.  Eastward,  it  seems  to  have  pene- 
trated far  into  the  heart  of  the  Caspian  region,  and  to  have  drifted 
with  these  peoples  as  an  associated  but  never  dominant  element. 
It  has  thus  come  to  have  tinged  the  population  of  many  distant 
areas,  but  has,  outside  its  own  rather  narrow  sphere,  never 
strongly  colored  them. 


TABLE  6 

MEDITERRANEAN  TYPE 
Average  Measurements  and  Indices 


Locality 
or  Tribe 

|No. 

L. 

B. 

H. 

L.B. 

Ind. 

L.H. 

Ind. 

B.H. 

Ind. 

Ns. 

L. 

Ns. 

B. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Bi-Zy. 

Diam. 

Up. 

Fac. 

L. 

Up.Fac. 

Ind. 

Gnath. 

Ind. 

Cap. 

Sicily 

IO 

187 

136 

126 

72.9 

67.5 

92.7 

5° 

21 

42.3 

D4I5 

Sardinia 

12 

188 

131 

129 

69.4 

68. 1 

97.7 

53 

22 

43-6 

126 

68 

55 

6 

97 

9 

1,420 

Siwah  Oasis 

6 

188 

134 

127 

71. 1 

67.6 

95-2 

53 

23 

43-8 

Egypt* 

13 

187 

132 

128 

70.7 

68.6 

97.1 

53 

23 

43-6 

124 

7i 

57 

3 

96 

5 

1,362 

England 

14 

IQ2 

139 

129 

72.6 

67.3 

92.7 

5i 

21 

44-3 

127 

71 

55 

7 

94 

4 

1,493 

Russia 

6 

180 

135 

I 29 

71.8 

68.2 

95-4 

42 . 2 

India 

S 

184 

I2Q 

126 

69.9 

68.7 

98.0 

52 

23 

42.6 

120 

91 

8 

1,391 

Chatham  Islands. 

S 

195 

139 

133 

71 .6 

68.4 

95  • 5 

57 

25 

43-0 

136 

73 

53 

9 

94 

7 

1,410 

Eskimo 

6 

194 

135 

133 

69-5 

68.5 

98.7 

56 

22 

40.5 

141 

76 

54 

I 

99 

8 

1,563 

California 

5 

191 

137 

127 

71.7 

66.4 

92.5 

54 

24 

43-9 

139 

76 

55 

2 

96 

O 

1,419 

* Eighteenth  Dynasty  and  earlier. 


The  table  brings  out  with  sufficient  clearness  the  strong  simi- 
larities between  the  various  series,  the  only  real  discrepancy  at 
all  being  the  somewhat  wider  faces  of  the  Moriori  of  the  Chatham 
Islands,  and  the  Eskimo,  and  this,  for  the  latter  at  least,  is  specif- 
ically accounted  for  by  the  special  factors  which  among  this 
people  are  supposed  to  work  to  that  end.  It  is  furthermore  to 
be  noted  that  the  Eskimo  crania  of  this  series  are  narrower  than 
those  of  any  other  type,  and  show  a somewhat  greater  prog- 
nathism. 

Of  the  brachycephalic  types,  the  Mongoloid  is  that  whose 
influence  seems  first  apparent  in  the  archaeological  record,  and 
which,  by  its  extreme  marginal  distribution  in  Europe  and  per- 
haps in  Africa,  seems  to  be  a very  ancient  type.  The  problem 
which  it  presents  is,  however,  one  of  much  difficulty.  Although 
we  appear  to  have  evidence  of  its  presence  in  western  Europe 
and  the  Balkan  peninsula  in  early  Palaeolithic  times,  and  of  its 


488 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


strong  influence  in  Belgium  and  probably  the  north  of  Switzer- 
land during  the  Neolithic  period,  I have  been  able  to  find  no 
crania  exhibiting  the  type  in  purity  older  than  the  Middle  Ages, 
from  which  time  down  to  the  present,  however,  they  are  to  be 
found  in  moderate  numbers  in  the  Central  European  Highlands 
and  the  surrounding  areas,  while  among  the  Scandinavian  Lapps 
this  type  is  clearly  dominant.  It  was  a minor  factor  in  the  area 
about  the  Gulf  of  Gabez  in  northern  Africa  in  Carthaginian 
times,  and  was  apparently  a strong  element  in  the  old  pre-Guanche 
population  of  the  Canary  Islands,  and,  wholly  blended  with  Pro- 
to-Australoid and  Proto-Negroid  types,  appears  at  the  extreme 
southern  tip  of  the  African  continent  among  the  Bushmen.  In 
Asia  it  characterizes  with  great  clearness  the  true  Mongols  and 
other  peoples  who  live  along  the  northern  borders  of  the  eastern 
great  plateaus  from  the  Altai  to  Lake  Baikal,  and  faint  traces 
of  its  presence  may  even  be  found  in  some  of  the  Plains  tribes  of 
North  America,  as  well  as  in  Tasmania.  Comparative  data  can, 
unfortunately,  only  be  presented  for  the  European  and  Asiatic 
representatives,  since  elsewhere  the  members  of  this  type  have 
been  so  completely  absorbed  that  no  pure  examples  seem  to 
survive. 


TABLE  7 
MONGOLOID  TYPE 
Average  Measurements  and  Indices 


Locality 
or  Tribe 

No. 

L. 

B. 

H. 

L.  B. 
Ind. 

L.H. 

Ind. 

B.H. 

Ind. 

Ns. 

L. 

Ns. 

B. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Bi-Zy. 

Diam. 

Up. 

Fac. 

L. 

Up. 

Fac. 

Ind. 

Gnath. 

Ind. 

Cap. 

Valais  (Switzerl’d) 

8 

IO 

9 

S 

3 

183 

l82 

180 

173 

152 

149 

152 

148 

125 

124 

124 

119 

83.2 

83-3 

83.6 

84.8 

ss-3 

68.5 

68.4 

68.4 

68.0 

68.9 

82.3 

83.1 

81.8 

80.6 

80.5 

48 

54 

49 

25 

29 

25 

53-o 

55-2 

53-o 

53-6 

53-9 

136 

66 

49.6 

100.4 

(1,405) 

Morvan  (France). 

Mongols 

Lapps 

142 

134 

5°-4 

51-7 

97.6 

1,438 

i,397 

Unfortunately  the  available  data  are  incomplete,  yet  so  far  as 
they  go  they  indicate  a rather  close  correspondence  in  proportions 
between  the  several  series,  although  the  Lapp  crania,  in  abso- 
lute size,  are  smaller  than  the  others.  The  numbers  in  the  series 
are,  however,  too  small  to  be  satisfactory,  but  until  more  abun- 
dant material  is  available  we  may,  I think,  tentatively  accept 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


489 


the  identification  as  correct.  Between  the  European  and  Asiatic 
representatives  of  the  type,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  survivors  (or 
apparent  survivors)  in  Africa,  no  direct  comparisons  can  be  made, 
since  even  the  blends  into  which  the  Mongoloid  type  has  faded 
in  Africa  are  not  comparable  with  those  in  other  regions,  for  in 
Africa  the  amalgamation  has  been  in  the  main  with  the  Proto- 
Australoid  type,  while  in  Europe  and  Asia  it  has  been  for  the 
most  part  with  the  Palas-Alpine.  When  the  abundant  Bushman 
cranial  material,  long  stored  in  the  South  African  Museum,  is 
made  available  for  students,  and  when  we  have  archaeological 
materials  from  the  homeland  of  the  present  Mongols,  it  may  be 
possible  to  approach  the  problem  with  more  hope  of  definite  re- 
sults. The  strong  indications  that  a Mongoloid  factor  is  pro- 
nounced in  the  Bushmen,  afforded  by  the  cranial  data  which 
we  now  have,  are  much  fortified  by  the  well-recognized  frequency 
of  the  Mongoloid  eye  among  them,  and  by  their  peculiar  yellow- 
ish skin  color. 

From  all  the  materials  available,  it  seems  that  we  may  ascribe 
to  the  original  Mongoloid  type  a short  stature,  perhaps  very 
short;  a yellowish  skin;  strong  development  of  the  "Mongoloid 
eye”;  and  probably  (?)  wavy  hair.  The  latter  feature  may  then 
be  supposed  to  have  been  lost  in  the  present  Mongols,  as  a re- 
sult of  the  large  admixtures  of  straight-haired  Palas-Alpine  and 
Alpine  elements  they  have  received,  whereas,  in  the  case  of  the 
Mongoloid  factor  which  made  its  way  into  southern  Africa,  ad- 
mixture with  Proto-Negroid  peoples  may  possibly  account  for 
the  character  of  the  Bushman  hair,  although  the  extremely  woolly 
nature  of  this  seems  a serious  obstacle  to  the  theory. 

What  the  original  focus  of  distribution  of  the  Mongoloid 
type  (accepting  for  the  moment  the  identifications  here  pro- 
posed) may  have  been  is,  in  the  absence  of  archaeological  ma- 
terials from  the  whole  of  inner  Asia,  hard  to  say.  Yet  the  most 
probable  location  would  seem  to  be  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
eastern  plateaus,  where  the  present  Mongol  peoples  have  long 
been  at  home,  and  that  the  entrance  of  this  type  into  Europe 
marked  the  first  coming  of  brachycephals  from  the  Asiatic  con- 


490 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


tinent,  coincident  in  time,  perhaps,  with  the  westward  drift  of 
the  Proto-Australoids  along  the  southern  border  of  these  up- 
lands. 

The  Palse-Alpine  type  presents  us  with  a problem  comparable 
in  many  ways  to  that  which  we  have  already  met  with  in  the 
case  of  the  Proto-Negroid  type,  where  a Negroid  and  a non-Ne- 
groid  form  appear  to  exist,  similar  in  cranial  characteristics,  but 
differing  in  pigmentation  and  type  of  hair.  The  conditions  here 
are,  however,  just  reversed  from  those  in  the  Proto-Negroid,  for, 
whereas  in  that  instance  the  majority  of  living  members  of  the 
type  are  Negroid  and  the  minority  non-Negroid,  in  the  Palae- 
Alpine  the  vast  majority  present  no  trace  of  Negroid  pigmenta- 
tion and  hair,  these  being  found  only  among  the  numerically  in- 
significant Negrito  peoples. 

The  normal  or  non-Negroid  Palae- Alpine  type  is  very  widely 
spread.  It  is  concentrated,  however,  very  clearly  at  the  present 
day  in  the  southeast  of  Asia,  Korea,  Japan,  Mongolia,  and  West- 
ern Turkestan,  and  in  Europe  is  strongly  represented  throughout 
the  Central  Highlands.  In  Africa,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  practi- 
cally absent.  In  Oceania  it  is  predominant  in  most  portions  of 
Indonesia,  and  in  the  New  World  is  found  in  largest  proportion 
among  the  tribes  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  the  south- 
eastern United  States,  and  in  the  Amazon  basin.  In  the  follow- 
ing table  comparative  data  have  been  assembled  for  the  type  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Oceania,  but  unfortunately  no  materials  are 
accessible  from  which  a series  for  any  portion  of  America  can  be 
obtained. 


TABLE  S 

PALzE-ALPINE  TYPE 
Average  Measurements  and  Indices 


Locality 
or  Tribe 

No. 

L. 

B. 

H. 

L.  B. 
Ind. 

L.H. 

Ind. 

B.H. 

Ind. 

Ns. 

L. 

Ns. 

B. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Bi- 

Zy. 

Dia. 

Up. 

Fac. 

L. 

Up. 

Fac. 

Ind. 

Gnath. 

lad. 

Cap. 

Valais  (Switzerland). 
Morvan  (France) 

3i 

13 

175 

152 

I3S 

86.5 

84.4 

77.2 

76.8 

89.0 

90.0 

48 

26 

53 - 4 

54- 3 

49-4 
Si- 1 

96.5 

94.2 

i,SS5 

Czechs 

14 

172 

145 

133 

84-3 

77.0 

91 .4 

46 

24 

54-0 

129 

47.0 

1,446 

Mongols 

17 

175 

151 

134 

86.5 

76.7 

88.6 

52 

28 

53-9 

139 

68 

5I-S 

1 ,508 

Burmese 

17 

168 

M3 

136 

85.3 

80. s 

94-9 

Si 

27 

5S  • 2 

132 

68 

51-8 

97.2 

1,383 

Hawaii 

8 

175 

144 

140 

82.5 

80.3 

97-3 

49 

27 

SS  • 6 

133 

5°-7 

1,455 

Tagalog 

II 

174 

145 

139 

83.7 

79-9 

96.2 

49 

28 

56.8 

133 

99-3 

1,484 

GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


491 


TABLE  9 
NEGRITO  SUBTYPE 
Average  Measurements  and  Indices 


Locality 
or  Tribe 

No. 

L. 

B. 

H. 

L.  B. 
Ind. 

L.  H. 
Ind. 

B.H. 

Ind. 

Ns. 

L. 

Ns. 

B. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Bi- 

Zy. 

Dia. 

Up. 

Fac. 

L. 

Up. 

Fac. 

Ind. 

Gnath. 

Ind. 

Cap. 

Negrito  (Philip- 
pines)   

Baining* 

Muruaf 

Congo 

Cameroon 

Congo  Pigmies 

Andamanese 

20 

IO 

9 

8 

IO 

2 

7 

172 

169 

174 

171 

172 
166 
163 

145 

139 

142 

140 
140 

139 

133 

138 

134 
136 
132 

135 
128 
128 

84.3 

82.0 

82.4 
81 . 6 

81.4 

84.0 
82.8 

80.6 

79-7 

78.9 

77-0 

78.2 

77-4 

79-7 

95  ■ 5 
96.6 
95-7 

94- 4 

95- 6 
Q2.0 

95-4 

5° 

46 

48 

45 

48 

44 

27 
26 
26 
25 

28 

23 

54-5 

56.2 

54- 5 

55- 7 
58.4 
58.4 
52.9 

131 
130 
137 

125 

132 

123 

62 

63 

61 

64 

62 

48.0 

46.0 
49.2 
48.7 
46 -3 
(Si- 8) 

96.8 

i°3-3 

100.2 
IOI  . I 

1.403 

1,240 

1,468 

1,299 

1,417 

1,352 

1,228 

• New  Britain,  f Island  east  of  New  Guinea. 


An  examination  of  the  table  will  show  that  the  European 
and  Asiatic  series  are  in  proportions  quite  closely  comparable, 
except  that  the  face  is  proportionately  slightly  wider  in  some  of 
the  European  peoples  of  this  type  than  in  Asia.  We  are  accus- 
tomed to  think  of  the  Mongol  as  having  a wide  face,  but  the 
Czech  much  exceeds  the  Mongol  in  this  particular  in  reality. 
In  absolute  size,  the  Asiatic  members  of  the  type  however  exceed 
the  European  so  far  as  regards  the  nose  and  face.  (The  pos- 
sibility of  a small  amount  of  artificial  deformation  in  the  case  of 
the  Burmese,  and  perhaps  the  Tagalog  crania  must  not  be  over- 
looked.) The  Negrito  series,  comprising  the  Negritos  of  the 
Philippines  and  the  Andamanese,  together  with  the  Negroid 
Palae-Alpine  groups  in  Melanesia  and  Africa,  are  in  general  some- 
what smaller,  and  in  the  Congo  Pigmies  and  the  Andamanese 
very  much  so.  The  Negrito  group  as  a whole  is  further  distin- 
guished from  the  other  Palae-Alpines  in  having  on  the  whole  a 
wider  face  (although  the  Czech  exceed  many  of  them  in  this  re- 
spect) and  a greater  tendency  toward  prognathism.  There  is, 
however,  much  variation  in  this,  since  the  Baining  are  actually 
to  be  classed  as  prognathous,  whereas  the  Philippine  Negritos 
are  almost  as  orthognathous  as  the  western  Swiss.  The  large 
absolute  dimensions  of  the  crania  which  have  been  published  as 
Negrito  from  the  Philippines,  are  to  my  mind,  however,  dis- 
tinctly suspicious,  since  if  they  are  as  dwarf  in  stature  as  the 
measurements  of  the  living  show,  it  seems  most  improbable  that 


492 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


their  skulls  should  be  of  larger  actual  dimensions  than  those  of 
the  Czech  and  as  orthognathous  as  those  of  the  peoples  of 
Switzerland.  Until  we  possess  considerable  absolutely  authentic 
check  material,  no  safe  conclusions  can,  I believe,  be  based  on 
these  so-called  Negrito  crania. 

The  distribution  of  the  Negrito  variety  of  the  Palae-Alpine 
type  is,  in  its  purer  forms,  very  limited  to-day,  being  confined 
to  the  Philippines,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  the  Andaman  Isl- 
ands, together  with  scattered  areas  in  the  great  Congo  forest  in 
Africa.  But,  although  only  in  these  regions  do  we  find  the  full 
Pigmy  form,  what  I believe  are  blends  between  these  very  small 
peoples  and  the  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types  are 
much  more  widely  spread  in  Melanesia,  where  they  are  partic- 
ularly clearly  marked  in  portions  of  New  Guinea,  and  in  Central 
Africa,  where  they  have  contributed  the  brachycephalic  factors 
to  much  of  the  modern  population. 

The  Palae-Alpine  type  seems  first  to  appear  in  western  Eu- 
rope at  the  beginning  of  the  Neolithic  period  or  even  just  before, 
and,  although  it  became  early  of  large  importance  in  the  region 
of  the  Central  Highlands,  did  not  spread  very  widely  elsewhere, 
although  toward  the  west  it  reached  Great  Britain  in  Neolithic 
times,  and  extended  in  minor  degree  apparently  along  the  coast 
toward  the  Baltic.  Later,  in  the  Bronze  Age,  the  Palae-Alpine 
peoples  were  in  great  measure  overwhelmed  by  the  Alpine  im- 
migrants, with  whom  they  gradually  amalgamated.  In  Asia 
our  only  evidences  relating  to  the  history  of  the  type  come  from 
Japan  and  the  southeast  of  the  continent.  On  the  basis  of  the 
single  small  series  of  Neolithic  crania  described  from  the  latter 
region,  the  Palae-Alpine  peoples  appear  to  have  been  absent  at 
this  time,  although  we  know  that  later,  as  at  present,  they  were 
factors  of  much  importance.  In  Japan,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
seems  to  be  the  oldest  type  yet  found,  being  present  in  very  early 
Neolithic  times.  In  the  New  World  we  can  judge  only  by  the 
geographic  distribution,  which  seems  to  indicate  that  the  Palae- 
Alpine  peoples  are  here  more  recent  than  any  of  the  dolicho- 
cephalic types,  but  older  than  the  Alpine. 

We  may  probably  regard  the  Palae-Alpine  type  as  originally 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


493 


short  in  stature,  with  brownish  skin  and  straight  black  hair. 
The  evidence  is  not  wholly  clear  as  to  whether  we  are  to  con- 
sider the  Mongoloid  eye  as  characteristic  of  this  type,  or  not. 
On  the  whole  I am  inclined  to  believe  that,  if  it  was,  it  was  so 
only  in  a slight  degree,  and  that  this  feature,  where  found,  has 
been  derived  by  intermixture  from  the  Mongoloid  type. 

Unquestionably  of  Asiatic  origin,  the  determination  of  the 
focus  of  distribution  of  the  Palae-Alpine  type  is  made  difficult 
by  the  total  lack  of  archaeological  material.  On  the  basis  of  its 
geographic  distribution  and  other  contributory  evidence  it  seems 
probable  that  the  earliest  assignable  home  of  the  type  must  be 
placed  in  the  southern  and  eastern  portions  of  the  great  plateaus, 
i.  e.,  in  southern  Mongolia,  Eastern  Turkestan  and  Tibet,  and 
the  upper  basins  at  least  of  the  Yangtse  and  Yellow  rivers. 
Thence  they  flowed  out  eastward  and  southeastward  into  the 
borderlands,  and  westward  through  the  older  haunts  of  the  Cas- 
pian folk,  around  the  northern  side  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  so  into 
central  Europe.  Toward  the  north  they  passed  along  the  pla- 
teau to  Bering  Strait  and  so  into  America,  where,  like  others 
before  and  after  them,  they  tended  to  drift  southward  through 
the  Plains.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  Asiatic  plateaus  they 
blended  with  the  Mongoloid  type  to  form  the  historic  Mon- 
gols. The  invasion  of  the  Caspian  peoples  in  late  Neolithic  times, 
and  still  more  that  of  the  Alpines,  swept  the  Palae-Alpines  in 
large  part  out  of  the  eastern  and  southern  portions  of  the  pla- 
teau, and  forced  them  more  and  more  toward  the  southeast,  into 
Indo-China,  whence  they  moved  out  into  the  archipelagoes  far- 
ther east.  Of  some  of  these  movements  the  last  phases  occurred 
within  historic  times. 

We  must  return  now  to  the  Negrito,  and  consider  further 
the  questions  of  their  origin  and  relationships.  From  the  present 
distribution  of  the  purer  groups  of  Negrito  around  the  fringes  of 
Indo-China,  and  the  reported  existence  of  short,  Negroid  folk 
well  to  the  north  in  the  interior  of  southern  China,  it  seems  prob- 
able that  the  Negrito  were  originally  a mainland  people,  who 
have  been  crowded  off  the  continent  by  the  expansion  of  other 
folk,  especially  the  Palae-Alpines.  The  African  Pigmies  of  Palae- 


494 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


Alpine  type  are  now  mainly  confined  to  the  Congo  forest  and 
its  borders,  but  there  are  reasons  for  believing  that  they  formerly 
extended  farther  eastward  onto  the  East  African  plateau.  If 
we  take  this  fact  in  connection  (i)  with  the  now  clearly  recog- 
nized existence  of  a Negroid  element  among  the  brachycephalic 
population  of  southern  Arabia;  (2)  with  the  existence  as  late  as 
Herodotus’s  day  of  Negroid  peoples  along  the  northern  shore  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  and  (3)  with  the  presence  of  a considerable 
brachycephalic  factor  of  uncertain  origin  among  the  Negroid 
population  of  southern  India,  the  hypothesis  that  the  Negrito 
subtype,  as  I venture  to  call  it,  may  have  originated  in  Africa 
and  passed  eastward  to  Indo-China,  or  in  the  latter  area  and 
migrated  west  to  Africa,  leaving  traces  of  its  passage  along  the 
way — such  a hypothesis  would  seem  to  meet  the  facts  as  known 
to-day.  In  view  of  the  similarity  which  the  Negrito,  as  already 
shown,  possesses  with  the  Palae-Alpine  type,  I am  inclined  to 
believe  that  it  originated  in  the  Indo-Chinese  area. 

What  finally  can  be  said  as  to  the  relations  of  this  Negrito 
subtype  to  the  Palae-Alpine?  So  similar  are  the  cranial  charac- 
teristics of  the  two  that,  were  it  not  for  the  radical  differences  in 
pigmentation  and  type  of  hair,  I should,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
one  trying  to  regard  the  human  race  as  a whole,  have  little  hesita- 
tion in  believing  that  the  Negrito  was  a specialized  form  which 
had  somehow  developed  from  the  Palae-Alpine.  For  if,  as  I be- 
lieve, exposure  for  thousands  of  years  to  tropical  environment 
may  result  in  a very  far-reaching  modification  of  pigmentation,  a 
very  early  branch  of  Palae-Alpine  peoples  wandering  southward 
may  have  served  as  the  source  from  which  the  Negrito  was  ulti- 
mately derived.  The  difference  in  type  of  hair  is  more  serious,  and 
raises  the  same  difficulties  as  came  up  in  the  problem  of  explaining 
the  Mongoloid  elements  among  the  Bushmen.  In  neither  case  am 
I able  to  offer  any  suggestion  as  to  how  so  profound  a modifica- 
tion could  have  been  brought  about,  yet  I cannot  but  feel  that 
the  fundamental  proportions  of  the  skull  are  elements  of  great 
stability  and  less  likely  to  suffer  modification  than  the  superficial 
features  of  the  body,  and  that  two  groups  of  men  resembling  each 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


495 


other  as  closely  in  respect  to  their  cranial  proportions  as  the 
Negrito  and  the  Palae-Alpine  must  somehow  have  had  a com- 
mon origin. 

The  Alpine  type  is  at  the  present  day  unquestionably  domi- 
nant throughout  the  larger  portion  of  the  world — that  is,  if  we 
consider  the  New  World  as  if  it  were  uninfluenced  by  European 
settlement,  and  as  if  it  were  still  occupied  by  the  aboriginal  peoples 
which  were  found  there  in  the  fifteenth  century.  In  Europe  it 
is  in  the  majority  everywhere  apparently  except  along  the  west- 
ern and  northern  borders;  in  Asia  it  preponderates  except  in  the 
extreme  south  and  southeast;  in  the  New  World  it  characterizes 
the  great  mass  of  the  aboriginal  population;  in  Oceania  it  is 
largely  represented  in  Indonesia  and  in  western  and  central  Poly- 
nesia. Only  Australia  and  the  greater  part  of  Africa  lie  outside 
its  range. 

That  the  dominant  people  of  central  Europe  were  immigrants 
from  the  Asiatic  continent,  and  retained  a considerable  simi- 
larity with  the  brachycephalic  populations  of  Asia  Minor  and 
the  fair-skinned  Turkish  or  Indo-European  speaking  peoples  of 
Turkestan  and  the  vicinity,  has  long  been  recognized,1  and 
Reicher2  has  gone  so  far  as  to  make  a very  detailed  cranial  com- 
parison between  what  are  commonly  called  the  Mongoloid  peoples 
of  Asia  and  the  Swiss.  He  found,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  was 
comparing  what,  on  the  basis  of  the  theory  here  set  forth  were 
really  much  mixed  groups,  an  unexpectedly  close  agreement. 
When,  instead  of  instituting  comparisons  between  composite 
series,  the  pure  types  are  placed  side  by  side,  the  resemblance 
is  still  more  striking.  Although,  however,  similarities  are  thus 
admitted  between  the  Asiatic  and  European  branches  of  the 
Alpine  race,  yet,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  American  Indian 
is  generally  regarded  as  of  “Mongolian”  origin,  the  logical  ex- 
tension of  the  comparison  to  peoples  of  the  New  World  has  not, 
curiously,  been  made;  at  least  so  far  as  I am  aware.  The  theory 
here  proposed  claims  a large  proportion  of  the  American  Indians 
to  be  primarily  of  Alpine  type,  and  I should  therefore  at  once 

1 Ripley,  1899;  Joyce,  1912.  2 Reicher,  1913-14. 


496 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


proceed,  after  confirming  the  resemblances  between  the  Asiatic 
and  European  branches,  to  show  that  the  New  World  contained 
peoples  equally  similar.  Unfortunately  the  reliable  data  avail- 
able on  American  crania  are  extremely  meagre,  and  it  is  only 
with  great  difficulty  that  a few  undeformed  crania  of  Alpine  type 
can  be  found.  The  full  demonstration  therefore  of  the  identity 
of  the  American  with  the  Asiatic  and  European  representatives 
of  the  type,  must  wait  until,  on  the  one  hand,  the  thousands  of 
American  Indian  crania  for  generations  stored  in  the  museums 
and  collections  of  this  country  shall  have  been  made  accessible 
to  the  student,  and,  on  the  other,  further  collections  are  made  in 
regions  in  regard  to  which  we  as  yet  know  little.  The  following 
table  is  mainly  confined  to  European,  Asiatic,  and  Polynesian 
series. 


TABLE  10 
ALPINE  TYPE 

Average  Measurements  and  Indices 


Locality 
or  Tribe 

No. 

L. 

B. 

H. 

L.  B. 
Ind. 

L.H. 

Ind. 

B.H. 

Ind. 

Ns. 

L. 

Ns. 

B. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Bi- 

Zy. 

Dia. 

Up. 

Fac. 

L. 

Up. 

Fac. 

Ind 

Gnath. 

Ind. 

Cap. 

Valais  (Switzerland) 

5° 

176 

151 

137 

85 . s 

77-4 

90.4 

52 

23 

43.7 

135 

73 

S3  - 7 

95-1 

1,566 

Dissentis  ( “ ) . . . 
Morvan  (France) . . 

I I 

16 

173 

148 

133 

85.8 

8.5.6 

77.1 

77-0 

89.7 

9i-5 

52 

23 

44.6 

44.1 

133 

49.8 
51  ■ 1 

92.3 

1,463 

Czechs 

20 

172 

145 

134 

84.4 

77.8 

92.7 

51 

22 

43-8 

131 

69 

53-i 

1,420 

Turks 

5 

174 

147 

13S 

85.7 

79.2 

92.4 

54 

24 

44.8 

Armenians 

17 

170 

144 

134 

85.0 

79.0 

92.9 

43-8 

(53-5) 

Mongols 

5 

176 

149 

134 

84.8 

76.4 

90.4 

55 

24 

43-8 

141 

55-0 

1,430 

Chinese 

8 

173 

144 

137 

83.3 

76.6 

95-1 

44.8 

1,469 

Tagalog 

15 

171 

144 

134 

84-5 

78.2 

93-3 

50 

22 

45-0 

99-7 

1,525 

Hawaii 

7 

175 

147 

139 

83.7 

79-7 

94.2 

53 

23 

44-7 

135 

69 

5i. 1 

95-6 

1,422 

Burmese 

6 

171 

144 

139 

86.5 

80.8 

94.2 

57 

25 

44-4 

134 

77 

57-7 

96.8 

L39I 

Araucanians 

3 

175 

143 

137 

81.5 

78.5 

94-5 

55 

24 

45-1 

134 

1,419 

Almost  the  only  difference  in  proportions  between  these  sev- 
eral series  is  that  the  Alpine  peoples  outside  of  Europe  have 
crania  which  are  slightly  higher  for  their  width,  i.  e.,  the  breadth- 
height  index  is  a little  higher  than  that  in  Europe.  This  in  some 
cases  is  probably  due  to  slight  artificial  deformation.  The  facial 
index  is  somewhat  variable,  but  is  so  in  Europe  itself,  as  be- 
tween such  closely  related  groups  as  the  two  from  neighboring 
parts  of  Switzerland.  In  absolute  dimensions  the  Armenians, 
Tagalog,  and  Burmese  have  slightly  smaller  skulls,  while  the  face 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


497 


and  nose  are  slightly  larger  in  the  non-European  as  compared 
with  the  European  series.  As  a whole,  however,  the  variation, 
whether  in  proportions  or  in  actual  dimensions  between  the 
series,  is  no  greater  than  that  within  the  Alpine  groups  in 
Europe  itself,  whose  identity  of  origin  has  never  been  ques- 
tioned. 

In  stature  the  Alpine  type  may,  I believe,  be  regarded  as  orig- 
inally above  the  medium,  shown  for  example  in  Europe  by  the 
tall  stature  of  the  Tyrolese  and  Balkan  peoples  who  are  more 
nearly  pure  Alpines  than  the  western  Swiss.  In  skin  color  they 
were  probably  fair,  the  hair  being  straight  and  dark,  the  eyes 
without  the  Mongoloid  fold.  Our  oldest  archaeological  record 
of  the  Alpine  type  in  western  Europe  is  from  the  end  of  the  Palae- 
olithic, when  so  many  new  types  made  their  first  appearance 
there.  Although,  however,  they  seem  to  have  arrived  in  Europe 
thus  early,  they  did  not  begin  to  be  of  large  importance  until 
the  end  of  Neolithic  times  and  the  Bronze  Age.  Probably  early 
in  the  Bronze  Age  peoples  of  this  type  reached  southern  Arabia, 
and  slightly  influenced  the  population  of  the  Nile  valley.  Per- 
haps at  this  same  time  or  possibly  later,  they  passed  from  the 
Iranian  Plateau  along  the  western  coast  of  India,  where  they 
exerted  on  the  population  an  influence  which  is  still  clear.  In 
early  Bronze  times,  also,  we  may  suppose  that  a strong  move- 
ment of  the  type  took  place  eastward,  through  the  eastern  Asiatic 
plateaus  to  the  borderlands  in  China,  as  well  as  northward 
through  the  old  habitat  of  the  Caspian  peoples  whose  last  rem- 
nants here  they  displaced,  and  then  eastward  again  toward  Ber- 
ing Strait  and  so  on  into  America,  where,  following  southward 
through  the  Plains,  they  forced  aside  the  older  Palae-Alpine  popu- 
lation and  made  their  way  along  the  Cordillera  into  South  Amer- 
ica. In  China  their  expansion  drove  the  older  mixed  Pake-Alpine 
and  Caspian  folk  southward,  and  led  in  proto-historic  times  to 
the  movement  of  mixed  groups,  largely  of  Alpine  origin,  into 
Indonesia,  where  they  were  known  as  the  Malays. 

The  earliest  homeland  of  the  Alpine  type  seems  probably 
to  have  been  in  the  western  Asiatic  plateaus,  as  that  of  the  Palae- 


498 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


Alpine  was  in  the  eastern.  All  the  evidence  at  our  disposal  seems 
to  me  to  favor  this  view,  and  we  have  no  indication  of  any  other 
type  having  ever  preceded  them  in  that  area. 

The  type  to  which  with  some  hesitation  the  name  of  Ural 
has  been  given,  presents  in  some  ways  the  greatest  uncertainties 
of  all.  With  our  present  data  it  seems  almost  hopeless  to  arrive 
at  any  certain  conclusions  in  regard  to  its  place  of  origin  and 
movements.  Nowhere  dominant  to-day,  it  is  present  as  an  im- 
portant minority  throughout  the  Central  European  Highlands 
and  adjacent  territory;  on  the  coasts  of  the  North  Sea  (where  it 
has  already  been  recognized  and  by  some  referred  to  as  the  Frisian 
type);  among  the  Prussians  of  eastern  Germany  and  among  the 
Finns;  and  in  the  Basques,  at  least  those  in  Spain.  In  eastern 
Europe  on  the  other  hand  it  is,  so  far  as  published  material  goes, 
largely  absent,  except  among  the  Turkish-speaking  and  other 
non-Indo-European  groups  toward  the  Urals,  and  the  Samoyedes 
of  the  Arctic  coast.  In  Asia  it  is  of  some  importance  among  the 
Mongols  and  Ostiaks,  and  in  the  Chuckchi  and  Siberian  Eskimo 
at  Bering  Strait.  South  and  east,  however,  of  a line  from  the 
Caspian  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  it  appears  to  be  wholly  ab- 
sent, as  it  is  in  Oceania  and  Africa,  except  in  the  Canary  Islands, 
where  it  is  somewhat  doubtfully  present  in  small  amount.  Most 
surprising,  however,  is  the  fact  of  its  unmistakable  and  con- 
siderable strength  in  the  New  World,  among  the  Siouan  and 
Algonkian  tribes  in  the  Plains,  and  especially,  far  to  the  south, 
in  Venezuela,  where  it  actually  becomes  dominant ! Historically 
the  type  may  be  traced  in  Europe  to  the  end  of  the  Palaeolithic 
period  in  southern  Germany.  In  Neolithic  times  it  appears  in 
Switzerland,  France,  and  Belgium,  being  of  large  importance 
only  in  the  latter  region.  Although  of  little  importance  in  the 
kurgans  or  burial  mounds  of  western  Russia,  dating  to  the  later 
Iron  Age,  it  is  prominent  in  those  of  roughly  similar  age  in  the 
eastern  portion  along  the  Urals,  yet  in  the  limited  materials  which 
we  possess  from  the  similar  kurgans  of  western  Siberia,  and  in 
those  of  the  Minusinsk  region  in  the  south,  there  is  hardly  a trace 
of  it.  In  America  the  distribution  of  the  type  makes  it  probable 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


499 


that  it  is  of  late  rather  than  early  appearance,  coming  in  prob- 
ably with  the  Alpine  peoples.  Its  total  absence  from  China,  Ja- 
pan, and  all  southeastern  Asia  is  further  evidence  of  the  lateness 
of  its  appearance  in  eastern  Asia  and  of  its  relatively  northern 
source. 

TABLE  11 
URAL  TYPE 


Average  Measurements  and  Indices 


Locality 
or  Tribe 

No. 

L. 

B. 

H. 

L.  B. 
Ind. 

L.H. 

Ind. 

B.H. 

Ind. 

Ns. 

L. 

Ns. 

B. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Bi- 

Zy. 

Dia. 

Up. 

Fac. 

L. 

Up. 

Fac. 

Ind. 

Gnath. 

Ind. 

Cap. 

Valais  (Switzerland). . 

0 

18 

12 

7 

2 

3 

3 

I8S 

l8l 

185 

191 

18S 

181 

154 
148 

iSi 

155 
153 
146 

125 

124 

125 
132 

126 

123 

83.2 

82 . 7 
82.6 

82.8 

81.9 

82.5 

80.6 

67.4 

68.3 

68.0 

67.7 

69. 1 

68.2 

67.8 

81. 1 
83.5 

83.1 

82.4 
84.9 

82.5 
83.0 

Si 

55 

22 

24 

43.7 

44.8 
44-3 

43- 2 

44- 4 

42.8 
44-5 

139 

70 

49-7 

97-9 

1,563 

Morvan  (France) 

North  Sea 

52.2 

91 .8 

1,451 

Venezuela 

138 

95-9 

1,450 

The  number  of  crania  in  most  of  the  series  is  very  small,  and 
the  available  data  incomplete,  but,  so  far  as  the  material  goes, 
it  indicates  at  least  as  close  a resemblance  between  widely  sepa- 
rated groups  as  between  the  several  European  series. 

The  determination  of  the  most  probable  focus  of  distribution 
of  this  type  is  difficult.  From  its  strength  in  the  region  near  the 
Ural  Mountains  this  area  has  much  to  recommend  it,  as  has  also 
the  North  Sea  or  Frisian  region.  On  the  whole,  perhaps  the 
former  has  the  greater  probability,  and  it  is  possible  that  in  its 
western  movement  it  represents  the  so-called  Arctic  Culture, 
which  seems  to  have  been  the  earliest  to  reach  the  Baltic 
shores. 

Having  now  completed  our  survey  of  the  eight  primary  types 
and  shown  that  there  are  good  grounds  for  believing  that  each 
forms  a definite  and  well-marked  unit,  so  far  as  the  fourteen 
measurements  and  indices  employed  are  concerned,  we  are  at 
last  in  a position  to  determine,  from  the  slightly  variant  figures 
for  each  type,  the  mean  and  thus  arrive  at  a generalized  state- 
ment of  the  characteristics  in  these  fourteen  particulars  of 
each  type. 


500 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


TABLE  12 

THE  EIGHT  PRIMARY  TYPES 
Average  Measurements  and  Indices* 


Types 

L. 

B. 

H. 

L.  B. 
Ind. 

L H. 
Ind. 

B.  H. 
Ind. 

Ns. 

L. 

Ns 

B. 

Nas. 

Ind. 

Bi- 

Zy. 

Dia. 

Up. 

Fac. 

L. 

Up. 

Fac. 

Ind. 

Gnath. 

Ind. 

Cap. 

Proto-Australoid 

IQO 

132 

128 

69  s 

67-5 

93-0 

48 

27 

56 

2 

131 

67 

Si-7 

IOO 

6 

1,363 

Proto-Negroid 

181 

130 

138 

72 .0 

76.7 

106.3 

47 

26 

55 

6 

129 

6S 

50.4 

97 

7 

i,337 

Mediterranean 

190 

135 

129 

71. 1 

68.0 

95-6 

53 

23 

43 

3 

130 

7i 

55-2 

95 

I 

1,428 

Caspian 

183 

133 

139 

72.6 

76.  s 

io5  • 4 

53 

23 

43 

4 

133 

7i 

54-7 

94 

O 

i,45o 

Mongoloid 

180 

15° 

123 

83. 5 

68.2 

82.3 

5° 

26 

53 

5 

136 

66 

5°-7 

98 

8 

1,407 

Palas-  Alpine 

178 

146 

136 

84-5 

78.5 

92.9 

48 

26 

54 

6 

132 

64 

49.3 

97 

8 

1,428 

Ural 

183 

iSi 

124 

82.5 

68.0 

82.7 

52 

23 

44 

I 

137 

7° 

52.7 

93 

9 

1,491 

Alpine 

174 

148 

136 

85.0 

78.2 

91.9 

53 

24 

44 

O 

134 

73 

53-5 

95 

I 

1,468 

• Averages  of  all  data,  not  averages  of  averages. 


If  we  make  allowances  for  the  fact  that  the  figures  for  the 
Ural  type  are  based  on  too  small  a number  of  crania  to  be  really 
reliable,  we  may  translate  the  figures  into  the  following  descrip- 
tive table. 


TABLE  13 

CHARACTERS  OF  THE  EIGHT  PRIMARY  TYPES 


Types 

Head 

Face 

Nose 

Prognathism 

Capacity 

Proto-Australoid 

Long 

Low 

Medium 

broad 

Broad 

Moderate 

Small 

Proto-Negroid 

Long 

High 

Medium 

broad 

Broad 

Moderate 

Small 

Mediterranean 

Long 

Low 

Narrow 

Narrow 

None 

Large 

Caspian 

Long 

High 

Narrow 

Narrow 

None 

Large 

Mongoloid 

Round 

Low 

Broad 

Broad 

Moderate 

Medium 

Palas-Alpine 

Round 

High 

Broad 

Broad 

Moderate 

Medium 

Ural 

Round 

Low 

Medium 

Narrow 

None 

(Largest) 

Alpine 

Round 

High 

Medium 

Narrow 

None 

Largest 

If  the  tables  are  examined  it  will  be  seen  that  the  eight  types 
may  be  grouped  into  four  pairs,  in  which,  so  far  as  regards  the 
size  and  proportions  of  the  skull,  they  are  alike,  but  are  contrasted 
in  the  character  of  the  face,  nose,  and  capacity.  Thus  the  Proto- 
Australoid  and  Mediterranean  are  alike  long,  low,  and  with  the 
height  standing  in  a medium  relation  to  the  width,  but,  whereas 
the  former  is  moderately  broad-faced,  broad-nosed,  with  a ten- 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


501 


dency  toward  prognathism,  and  is  of  small  brain  size,  the  latter 
is  narrow-faced,  narrow-nosed,  is  clearly  orthognathous  and  has 
a large  brain.  If,  however,  we  arrange  the  types  in  relation  not 
to  the  external  dimensions  or  proportions  of  the  skull  itself,  but 
on  the  basis  of  capacity  (which  is  thus  essentially  that  of  brain 
size),  a much  more  significant  grouping  appears,  viz.:  Pro  to- Aus- 
traloid and  Proto-Negroid,  Mongoloid  and  Palae-Alpine,  Medi- 
terranean and  Caspian,  and  Ural  and  Alpine. 

To  some  of  the  implications  which  such  a grouping  leads 
we  shall  revert  later,  but  it  is  now  time,  after  we  have  finally 
reached  the  point  where  a generalized  description  of  each  type 
has  been  attained,  to  answer  the  question  as  to  what,  after  all, 
is  the  real  nature  of  the  types  so  defined.  Are  these  “types,” 
whose  proportions  and  changes  we  have  been  following  through- 
out the  world  and  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present,  really 
“races”?  In  approaching  the  whole  problem  in  the  beginning, 
it  was  pointed  out  that  physical  anthropologists  are  not  by 
any  means  yet  agreed  as  to  what  are  the  true  criteria  of  race, 
and  that  there  is  considerable  doubt  as  to  the  real  correlation 
of  the  various  characteristics.  For  this  reason  we  were  led  to 
select  rather  arbitrarily  and  by  force  of  circumstances  three 
particular  criteria  (the  length-breadth  and  length-height  indices 
of  the  skull  and  the  nasal  index),  from  which  were  derived  what 
were  assumed  to  be  eight  fundamental  “types.”  The  summary 
of  the  data  given  in  the  first  part  of  the  present  chapter  has  led 
to  the  conclusion  that,  in  respect  to  the  criteria  selected  and  the 
absolute  measurements  on  which  these  indices  are  based,  the 
types  are  on  the  whole  clear-cut  units.  It  has  also  been  shown 
that  with  these  units  are  associated  further  characters  of  facial 
form,  degree  of  prognathism,  and  brain  size  (capacity) ; in  other 
words,  a real  association  of  several  of  the  most  important  char- 
acteristics has  been  established,  and  the  conception  of  the 
“types”  rests  not  upon  three  criteria  whose  relations  were  only 
assumed,  but  upon  seven  whose  association  seems  to  have  been 
proved. 

But  the  tables  given  in  the  first  portion  of  this  chapter  have 


502 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


also  proved  another  thing,  i.  e .,  that  these  “types”  are  as  a rule 
but  scantily  represented  among  the  world’s  peoples,  the  vast 
majority  of  whom  present  not  the  characteristics  of  our  pure 
types  but  of  blends  between  them.  If  by  the  term  “race”  we 
mean  to  describe  actually  existing  groups  of  people,  as  I think 
we  should,  then  our  “types”  are  certainly  not  “races,”  since, 
with  few  exceptions,  there  are  no  groups  of  men  who  actually 
represent  them.  Are  the  “types”  then  mere  abstractions — have 
they  no  real  existence?  The  answer  is,  I believe,  both  yes  and 
no.  They  are  abstractions  in  that  they  are  theoretical  forms, 
deducible  from  the  existing  varieties  of  men,  among  whom  they 
are  found  in  pure  form  as  a rule  in  very  small  proportions  only; 
but  they  are  abstractions  only  in  the  sense  that  certain  parent 
forms  from  which  different  animal  species,  or  different  linguistic 
elements  are  derived  are  abstractions;  they  do  not  now  exist,  no 
person  has  seen  or  heard  them,  but  we  are  led  none  the  less 
firmly  to  believe  that  at  one  time  they  must  have  existed.  We 
may  then,  I believe,  regard  these  “types”  as,  so  to  speak,  arche- 
types, fundamental  patterns,  more  or  less  perfectly  evolved  in 
the  process  of  the  development  of  the  human  species,  and,  like 
other  animal  varieties  and  species,  having  had  a definite  origin 
both  in  time  and  space.  From  the  complex  fusion  between  these 
archetypes,  or  fundamental  races,  modified  by  environment  es- 
pecially in  outward  characters  of  pigmentation,  hair,  etc.,  the 
existing,  actual  races  which  might  be  described  as  stable  blends, 
have  been  derived.  Here  and  there,  in  remote  corners  of  the 
world,  far  removed  from  the  great  currents  of  migration,  moder- 
ately pure  remnants  of  these  older,  more  original  races  still  sur- 
vive; as  a rule,  however,  we  may  trace  them  only  by  an  analysis 
of  their  blended  forms,  imbedded  in  which  we  may  find  never- 
theless a few  individuals  who  represent  the  ancient  type. 

We  are  thus  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  “types”  whose 
distribution  and  hypothetical  migrations  we  have,  in  the  preced- 
ing pages,  been  attempting  to  trace,  are  not  races  in  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the  term,  and  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  many 
more  or  less  clearly  differentiated  racial  groups  into  which  we 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


503 


1 1 

may  divide  the  peoples  of  the  world  to-day.  These  various  liv- 
ing races  are  each  the  result  of  some  particular  combination  of 
the  original  “types”  or  elements,  and  the  difficulty  which  we 
find  in  deciding  just  how  many  races  there  are,  is  largely  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  elements  have  been  blended  so  variously  and 
in  such  varying  proportions.  Moreover,  from  this  point  of  view, 
Va  race  is  not  a permanent  entity,  something  static;  on  the  con- 
trary it  is  dynamic,  and  is  slowly  developing  and  changing  as  the 
result  of  fresh  increments  of  one  or  another  of  its  original  con- 
stituents or  of  some  new  one.  There  is  not  a race  in  all  history 
that  has  remained  permanently  unchanged,  although  the  rate  and 
degree  of  change  have  varied.  Some  races  have  retained  their 
fundamental  characteristics  for  millennia  with  but  slight  modifi- 
cation, whereas  others  have,  as  a result  of  the  incorporation  of 
new  factors,  ceased  to  exist,  because  by  virtue  of  such  amalgama- 
tion they  have  become  something  else. 

The  acceptance  of  such  an  hypothesis,  of  the  theory  that  the 
existing  varieties  of  man  are  to  be  explained  not  as  derived  by 
differentiation  from  a single  ancestral  form,  but  as  developed 
by  amalgamation  of  the  descendants  of  several  quite  discrete 
types,  places  us  squarely  in  the  ranks  of  the  long  discredited 
polygenists.  But,  quite  apart  from  the  results  of  the  present  in- 
quiry, the  whole  trend  of  recent  anthropological  investigation, 
together  with  the  archaeological  discoveries  of  the  last  decade, 
can  have,  it  seems  to  me,  no  other  outcome  than  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  monogenist  position  and  the  frank  acceptance  of 
polygenism.  For  the  archaeological  data  have  demonstrated  that, 
as  far  back  of  the  Neanderthaloids  of  early  Palaeolithic  time  as 
these  are  back  of  us,  there  existed  men  quite  different  from  the 
Neanderthal  type  (or  Proto-Australoid,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  present  theory),  not  primitive,  not  more  ape-like,  but  com- 
parable in  most  respects  to  the  peoples  of  European  type  to-day. 
And,  although  as  yet  no  actual  human  remains  have  been  dis- 
covered, the  presence  of  stone  implements  unquestionably  of 
human  manufacture,  at  Foxhall  and  Cromer  in  southeastern 
England,  has  at  last,  it  seems,  definitely  proved  the  existence  of 


504 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


Tertiary  man,  and  has  opened  up  a vista  not  of  scores  but  of 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  for  man’s  development  and  spread. 
In  such  vast  lengths  of  time  there  is  place  for  very  far-reaching 
modifications  to  have  taken  place,  yet  these  are,  I cannot  help 
thinking,  far  more  likely  to  have  affected  the  superficial  rather 
than  the  actual  structural  portions  of  the  body. 

The  monogenist  may  well  reply  to  all  this:  “I  grant  you  that 
we  now  have  evidence  of  the  existence  in  extremely  early  times 
of  sharply  differing  varieties  of  man,  but  the  greatly  increased 
vista  of  the  age  of  the  human  race  gives  ample  time  for  these  to 
have  developed  by  gradual  changes  from  a still  older,  let  us  say 
even  a Miocene,  ancestor.  Why  assume  that  your  types  ever 
had  any  actual  existence?  They  are  merely  the  end  result  of 
the  differentiations  undergone  by  the  original  ancestral  form; 
they  are  ultimate  and  negligible  variants  rather  than  primitive 
discrete  types.”  Such  a statement,  however,  quite  neglects  to 
take  into  consideration  a fact  upon  which  much  stress  has 
throughout  this  book  been  laid,  i.  e.,  the  peculiar  geographical 
distribution  of  these  supposed  variants.  If,  as  the  monogenist 
would  imply,  man  was  distributed  over  the  world  in  the  begin- 
ning in  a more  or  less  generalized  type,  and  has  since  gradually 
been  modified  in  every  possible  direction,  why  should  not  these 
variants  be  scattered  in  a much  more  haphazard  fashion  than  as 
a matter  of  fact  they  are  ? The  actual  present  and  past  distribu- 
tion of  these  “types”  is  intelligible  on  the  basis  that  they  rep- 
resent the  successive  drifts  of  peoples  marked  by  contrasted 
characteristics;  it  is,  it  seems  to  me,  impossible  of  explanation 
on  the  theory  of  chance  local  variations.  We  must,  to  be  sure, 
postulate  an  ultimate  prototype  from  which  all  of  the  suggested 
“archetypes”  were  derived,  but  to  my  mind  it  is  more  in  keep- 
ing with  the  whole  trend  of  modern  science  to  regard  these  as 
sharp  variations  from  this  prototype,  arising  in  definite  areas 
probably  at  different  times,  as  in  the  case  of  other  varieties  and 
species  in  the  animal  and  plant  worlds.  Thus  we  are  led  to  as- 
sume that  from  the  phylum  which  branched  off  from  that  of  the 
anthropoid  apes,  a number  of  distinct  types  arose,  just  as  among 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


505 


the  anthropoids;  and  that  just  as  the  latter  varieties  and  species 
spread  from  their  several  areas  of  characterization  widely  over 
the  world,  so  did  these  originally  distinct  human  forms.  The 
degree  of  divergence  in  the  human  phylum  was  less  great  than 
in  that  of  the  apes,  the  separate  varieties  were  fertile  inter  se 
and  have  blended  and  crossed  in  every  imaginable  fashion  to 
produce  the  existing  races  of  man. 

In  the  present  study  we  have  been  engaged  in  tracing  the 
distribution  and  succession  of  what  we  have  assumed  to  be  cer- 
tain fundamental  types,  conceived  as  originating  at  a very  early 
date  as  human  varieties,  in  the  same  fashion  that  varieties  and 
species  have  arisen  in  other  branches  of  the  animal  and  plant 
worlds.  In  picturing  their  character  and  dispersion  it  must  be 
remembered  that,  in  common  with  varieties  and  species  in  the 
rest  of  nature,  these  types  are  subject  to  variation,  and  that  only 
the  mean  of  the  oscillations  is  expressed  in  the  abstract  defini- 
tion of  the  type.  Thus,  from  the  very  first,  the  different  groups 
representative  of  the  several  types  were  not  strictly  uniform, 
but  consisted  of  a majority  of  individuals  who  completely  con- 
formed to  the  type,  with  a minority  in  whom  it  was  expressed 
in  slightly  exaggerated  or  incomplete  fashion.  In  their  expansion 
and  consequent  contact  and  more  or  less  complete  amalgamation 
with  other  types,  this  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  group  would  be- 
come more  and  more  pronounced.  Yet  the  increase  in  medial 
forms  due  to  fusion  of  two  or  more  types  has  in  all  probability 
been  extremely  slow,  so  that  long  after  contact  each  group 
would  preserve  a core,  as  it  were,  of  its  original  type. 

We  must  conceive,  therefore,  of  all  the  great  drifts  or  migra- 
tions of  peoples,  except  perhaps  in  the  very  earliest  period,  as 
those  of  actually  very  complex  groups,  in  which  as  a rule  one  type 
and  its  closer  variants  were  in  large  majority.  The  earlier  the 
period  at  which  such  movements  took  place,  the  larger  we  may 
suppose  the  proportion  of  relatively  pure  types  to  have  been. 
Yet  as  late  as  the  proto-historic  period  of  such  migrations  as  that 
of  the  Hindu  ancestors  into  India,  or  the  historic  expansion  of 
the  Slavs  in  Europe,  of  the  Thai-speaking  peoples  in  southeastern 


506 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


Asia,  of  the  Kirgiz  and  Yakut  in  Siberia,  even  of  the  Arabs  in 
northern  Africa,  it  is  probable  that  the  majority  of  the  migrants 
were  relatively  pure  in  type.  As  to  the  nature  of  such  movements, 
it  is  probable  that  most  of  them  were  slow,  often  almost  imper- 
ceptible, drifts,  rather  than  sudden  and  large-scale  conquests, 
although  the  latter  must  sometimes  have  occurred.  The  pos- 
session by  the  immigrants  or  conquerors  of  great  superiority  in 
weapons  or  numbers  of  course  favored  a rapid  replacement,  such 
as,  to  take  a recent  example,  the  occupation  of  the  New  World 
by  Europeans.  Similar  rapid  and  wholesale  replacements  may, 
however,  well  have  occurred  far  in  the  past,  for  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  the  advantage  possessed  by  Europeans  in  the  New  World 
was  any  greater  than  that  held  by  the  first  peoples  armed  with 
the  bow  over  those  as  yet  unacquainted  with  that  weapon.  So 
both  by  rapid  conquest  as  well  as  by  slow,  glacier-like  advance, 
or  by  imperceptible  penetration,  or  as  the  result  of  flight  before 
a conqueror,  the  various  types  have  spread  and  interpenetrated. 

This  shifting  and  drifting  of  peoples,  voluntary  or  involun- 
tary, blind  or  purposeful,  confined  within  narrow  limits  or  ex- 
tending beyond  the  borders  of  continents,  forms  as  we  look  back 
upon  the  long  history  of  the  human  race  a very  complex  picture. 
Yet  in  the  seeming  chaos  it  seems  possible  to  discern  a few  gen- 
eral tendencies,  a few  characteristics  of  the  various  types,  which 
stand  out  in  their  struggles  with  one  another;  a dimly  visible 
drama  in  which  these  types  assume  something,  as  it  were,  of  per- 
sonality. 

Thus  the  types  for  which  a tropical  origin  has  been  proposed, 
the  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid,  have,  with  few  excep- 
tions, never  ventured  beyond  the  tropic  lands,  and  when  they 
did  were  usually  forced  to  yield  before  other  and  more  able 
types.  In  early  Palaeolithic  times  both  penetrated  into  Europe, 
but  went  to  the  wall  on  the  appearance  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  Caspian  peoples.  Some  of  the  remnants,  driven  northward 
and  absorbed  by  their  conquerors,  passed,  much  modified  by 
their  new  environment,  into  the  complex  of  the  Baltic  peoples, 
but  elsewhere  disappeared,  leaving  hardly  a trace  behind.  In 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


507 


the  New  World,  where  their  apparent  presence  is  so  surprising, 
with  few  exceptions  the  peoples  showing  the  characteristics  of 
these  types  were  of  low  culture,  generally  marginal  in  distribu- 
tion and  largely  extinct  when  Europeans  came  to  the  continent. 
One  exception,  however,  is  a paradox,  for  the  Iroquois  and  south- 
ern xAlgonkian  tribes  were  among  the  first  of  those  north  of  Mexico 
in  ability  and  prowess,  and  neither  in  outward  appearance  nor 
in  culture  betrayed  what  seem  to  be  their  actual  affiliations. 
Not  only  have  the  Proto-Australoids  and  Proto-Negroids  not 
been  able  to  reach  out  and  hold  any  considerable  portions  of  the 
world  outside  the  tropics,  they  have  had  to  give  ground  within 
their  own  territory,  and  half  of  Africa,  the  whole  of  which  they 
seem  once  to  have  held,  very  early  passed  out  of  their  control. 
In  the  great  struggle  they  have,  almost  from  the  beginning,  been 
losers. 

The  Mongoloid  and  Palae-Alpine  types  appear,  as  we  have 
seen,  to  have  been  children  of  the  great  central  Asiatic  plateaus, 
at  a time,  perhaps,  when  these  were  less  arid  than  they  have  been 
in  historic  times.  Larger -brained,  and  tempered  somewhat  by  a 
less  tropical  climate,  they  were  dwellers  in  the  open  plains  and 
mountains  rather  than  the  dense  forest.  The  Mongoloids  were 
perhaps  the  first  of  the  plateau  dwellers  to  spread,  for  we  seem  to 
find  evidence  that  they  reached  western  Europe  in  early  Palaeo- 
lithic times,  and  may  possibly  have  crossed  from  Spain  into  north- 
ern Africa,  whence  some  outposts,  much  mixed  with  Proto-Aus- 
traloids, found  their  way  or  were  driven  far  into  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  continent.  The  role  of  the  Mongoloid,  however, 
has  from  the  first  been  a minor  one,  and  they  are  to-day  but  an 
insignificant  group.  Their  supposed  African  branch  passed  into 
oblivion  and  extinction,  except  for  its  survival  as  one  of  several 
factors  in  the  disappearing  Bushmen  of  the  cape.  The  European 
group  were  wholly  absorbed  by  the  later  Pake-Alpines  and  Al- 
pines, in  the  highland  regions  in  which  the  Mongoloids  seem  to 
have  taken  refuge;  only  in  the  Lapps,  on  the  extreme  confines  of 
the  continent  toward  the  north,  can  we  recognize  their  survivors. 
The  meteoric  rise  of  the  Mongoloids  in  historic  times,  led  by  the 


508 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


genius  of  Khengiz  Khan,  himself  almost  certainly  in  part  of  Cas- 
pian blood,  was  but  a flash  in  the  pan ; the  Mongols  of  history  were 
at  least  half  of  Palae-Alpine  and  Alpine  strain.  So  far  as  one  can 
see,  the  Mongoloid  type  has  contributed  little  of  value  either  to 
the  sum  of  human  achievements  or  to  the  blood  of  existing  races. 

Quite  otherwise,  however,  with  the  Palae- Alpines.  Like  their 
probable  Mongoloid  predecessors,  they  passed  into  Europe,  al- 
though at  a much  later  date.  They  had  there  apparently  to  con- 
tend with  the  Caspian-Mediterranean  folk  who  had  come  to 
occupy  much  of  the  land,  and  later  with  the  Alpine  peoples  who 
followed  from  Asia  on  their  heels.  Of  different  mettle  from  the 
older  Proto-Australoids  and  Proto-Negroids,  they  seem  to  have 
stubbornly  contended  for  the  control  of  the  highland  region,  out- 
side which  their  interests  did  not  greatly  extend.  The  increasing 
flood  of  Alpines  coming  from  the  east  ultimately  overwhelmed 
them,  but,  fusing  with  these  later  comers,  they  have  contributed 
much  to  the  people  and  the  history  of  Europe.  Here,  however, 
the  type  has  been  overshadowed  by  the  Alpine;  in  eastern  Asia, 
and  especially  in  the  southeast,  the  Palae- Alpines  have  had  a 
better  opportunity  to  show  their  character.  Dominating  after  a 
struggle  the  older  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  peoples, 
and  leavened  by  some  infusion  of  Caspian  and  Mediterranean 
blood,  they  were  capable  of  long  and  stubborn  resistance  to  the 
rising  power  of  the  Alpines,  the  later  phases  of  this  struggle  being 
perhaps  seen  in  the  conflicts  between  the  early  Chinese,  as  repre- 
sentatives of  the  latter,  and  the  non-Chinese  population  south 
of  the  Yangtse  River.  With  some  addition  of  Caspian  or  Alpine 
factors,  they  were  capable  of  the  development  of  considerable 
states  (Nan-chao,  Cambodia,  Siam,  Burma,  Modjopahit,  etc.), 
or,  with  still  larger  Alpine  elements,  of  the  display  of  the  con- 
siderable abilities  of  the  ancient  Turks.  Something  of  these 
same  characteristics  and  experiences  seem  to  hold  also  in  the 
New  World,  for  in  the  region  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
where  the  Palae-Alpine  type  seems  to  be  strongly  concentrated, 
we  find  peoples  of  relatively  backward  culture,  whereas  in  the 
southeast  of  the  continent,  where  there  is  a larger  Alpine  ele- 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


509 


ment,  the  tribes  show  notably  greater  ability.  If  one  were  to 
venture  to  appraise  these  two  types  from  the  point  of  view  of 
their  value  and  contributions  toward  the  complex  of  the  whole 
human  race,  one  would  probably  rate  the  Mongoloid  low,  while 
the  Palae- Alpine  would  rank  as  a type  which  by  itself  could  claim 
no  great  achievements,  but  which,  with  some  admixture  of  Cas- 
pian, Mediterranean,  or  Alpine  factors,  has  made  its  mark  in 
history,  and  one  which  has  contributed  in  considerable  measure 
to  the  developing  complex  of  races. 

Whereas  the  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  types  seem 
to  have  had  their  origin  in  the  tropics,  and  the  Mongoloid  and 
Palae- Alpine  upon  the  great  central  Asiatic  plateaus,  the  Caspian 
and  Mediterranean  types  seem  to  be  traceable  to  the  Eur-Asiatic 
steppes  surrounding  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  regions  adjacent  to 
it,  north  of  the  plateaus.  If  the  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto- 
Negroid  types  have  been,  except  in  the  very  earliest  period,  the 
most  stay-at-home  of  types,  the  Caspian  and  Mediterranean, 
especially  the  former,  have  been  of  all  the  most  adventurous. 
In  late  Palaeolithic  times  spreading  westward  into  Europe,  and 
almost  as  early  moving  northeastward  into  America,  in  Neo- 
lithic times  they  forced  their  way  across  the  eastern  plateaus  to 
the  borderlands  in  China  and  Japan,  and  thence  southward 
into  Indonesia  and  far  into  the  Pacific.  Southward,  also,  across 
the  eastern  plateaus  they  made  their  way  early  into  Arabia  and 
northeastern  Africa,  driving  from  the  whole  northern  part  of 
the  continent  its  older  Negroid  population,  and  infusing  them- 
selves along  the  East  African  plateau  far  to  the  south.  Later  yet 
they  moved  southward  across  the  Iranian  plateau  to  India.  The 
Pala;- Alpines  were  on  the  whole  content  to  be  led;  the  Caspian 
and  Mediterranean  peoples  were,  on  the  other  hand,  leaders,  the 
former  perhaps,  if  one  may  venture  so  far  in  attempting  an  analy- 
sis, more  in  the  affairs  of  the  body,  the  latter  in  those  of  the  mind. 
The  Caspian  was  more  a conqueror,  the  Mediterranean  a thinker 
and  artist.  Each  type  had  in  it  great  latent  possibilities,  and 
when  the  two  were  blended,  a people  of  great  capability  was  the 
result.  It  was  thus  that,  among  a Mediterranean  folk  in  whom 


510 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


was  a minority  of  Caspian,  that  the  striking  Minoan  civilization 
of  Crete  arose,  out  of  which  grew  more  or  less  directly  and  among 
a largely  kindred  people  the  “ glory  that  was  Greece”;  that,  in 
a population  where  the  two  elements  were  perhaps  more  equally 
blended,  there  were  evolved  the  great  systems  of  Indian  philoso- 
phy, whose  influence  has  been  so  profound  upon  all  the  Orient; 
that  among  another  people,  mainly  compounded  of  these  same 
factors,  that  most  militant  of  religions,  Islam,  arose,  whose  ad- 
herents have  carried  it  with  fire  and  sword  into  Europe,  through- 
out northern  Africa,  almost  the  whole  of  Asia,  and  far  out  into 
the  Pacific;  and  that  in  a related  group  of  similar  origin  in  Pal- 
estine we  have  the  source  of  that  faith  which  missionaries  have 
carried  to  every  land.  Blended  also  of  these  two  types,  but  with 
considerable  elements  of  the  older  Proto-Australoid  and  Proto- 
Negroid  were  the  Baltic  peoples,  that  “Nordic”  race  which 
wrecked  the  power  of  Rome,  as  their  Caspian-Mediterranean 
kindred,  the  Hyksos,  had  conquered  Egypt,  or  the  Kassites  had 
plundered  Babylon,  or  the  Persians  had  overthrown  Assyria. 
Lastly,  in  modern  times,  it  was  largely  the  adventurous  daring, 
the  genius  and  the  hardihood  of  these  breeds  which  were  respon- 
sible for  the  discovery,  conquest,  and  colonization  of  America  by 
Europe,  an  event  which,  in  the  development  of  the  human  race 
as  a whole,  was  destined  to  be  of  great  significance. 

Singly  or  together,  these  types  stand  pre-eminent  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Old  World,  yet,  strangely  enough,  in  the  New  they 
can  boast  little  in  the  way  of  achievement.  In  South  America 
the  Caspian  type  appears  in  any  importance  only  among  the 
wretched  and  fast-dying  tribes  of  the  extreme  south,  while  in 
the  northern  continent  it  apparently  forms  the  dominant  element 
only  in  the  Eskimo.  It  is  hard  to  conceive  of  a greater  contrast 
to  the  forceful,  conquering,  intellectual  peoples  of  this  type  in 
the  Old  World,  than  the  timid  and  simple  Eskimo.  Is  it  not  im- 
possible that  the  one  should  be  of  common  ancestry  with  the 
other?  Have  our  criteria  and  analysis  in  this  instance  told  the 
truth?  It  must  be  confessed  that  explanation  of  the  failure  of 
the  Caspian  peoples  in  America  to  live  up  to  the  achievements 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


511 


of  their  supposed  kindred  in  Asia  and  Europe  is  difficult,  although 
for  the  Eskimo  a case  can  perhaps  be  made.  For  if,  instead  of 
the  strongly  favoring  environments  in  which  the  Old  World  rep- 
resentatives of  the  type  have  lived,  we  substitute  the  poverty 
of  that  to  which  the  Eskimos  have,  in  historic  times  at  least,  been 
confined,  we  may  have  a partial  answer.  Yet  we  do  not  know 
that  the  Eskimo  have  always  been  held  within  the  Arctic,  and  for 
the  small  groups  of  people  of  this  type  which  reached  the  southern 
continent  no  claim  of  the  repressive  influence  of  environment 
can  of  course  be  made.  The  paradox  therefore  remains. 

The  Alpine  type,  both  in  the  manner  of  its  spread  and  in 
its  character  and  history,  forms  an  interesting  contrast  to  all 
the  others.  The  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  peoples  seem  to 
have  expanded,  in  many  cases  at  least,  rapidly  by  invasion  and 
conquest.  The  Alpines,  on  the  other  hand,  appear  more  com- 
monly to  have  advanced  slowly,  more  insidiously,  but  yet  with 
the  certainty  of  a glacier,  and,  latest  to  reach  most  portions  of 
the  world,  they  have  had  to  contend  against  the  peoples  already 
in  occupation.  In  Europe  they  are  clearly  the  last  comers,  and 
perhaps  this  fact  may  have  been  one  of  the  reasons  why  their 
first  spread  was  apparently  by  sea  along  the  shores.  They  came 
in  strength  only  in  Neolithic  times,  into  a Europe  held  in  the 
Highlands,  we  may  suppose,  mainly  by  Palse-Alpine  folk,  else- 
where by  Caspian  and  Mediterraneans.  It  was  a formidable 
competition,  yet,  as  we  note  in  the  archaeological  record  the  grow- 
ing proportions,  the  wider  and  wider  spread  of  the  Alpine  type, 
we  seem  to  see  the  evidence  that,  in  face  of  all  resistance,  they 
slowly  but  surely  won.  Their  success  was  comparable,  however, 
not  so  much  to  the  rush  of  a great  flood,  sweeping  all  before  it, 
as  to  the  insidious  and  irresistible  rising  of  the  tide,  which,  al- 
though it  may  be  swept  back  and  held  at  bay  at  one  point,  even- 
tually comes  flooding  in  upon  the  defenders  from  behind.  By  the 
end  of  the  Bronze  or  the  beginning  of  the  Iron  Age  the  Alpine 
peoples  had  probably  dominated  the  Highlands  and  largely  in- 
corporated the  older  Palae- Alpines  and  remnants  of  the  Mongo- 
loids; they  had  come  down  into  the  valley  of  the  Po  in  northern 


512 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


Italy,  held  much  of  France,  and  had  sent  out  an  arm  along  the 
coast  to  southeastern  Britain  and  the  North  Sea  shores.  Then 
came  the  great  outpouring  of  the  Baltic  peoples,  bursting  through 
the  encircling  Alpines  southward  through  France  and  Spain  into 
Africa;  across  the  Alps  into  Italy,  where  the  population  of  Rome 
was  already  as  fully  Alpine  as  that  of  France;  pouring  into 
southern  and  eastern  Britain.  For  a time  the  Alpines  were 
thrown  back  upon  themselves,  but  not  for  long.  Within  a few 
centuries  Bavaria,  the  Rhine  valley  in  Alsace,  the  Netherlands, 
and  France  were  again  in  majority  Alpine,  while  in  the  east  the 
pressure  of  the  Slav  (whether  or  not  originally  akin  to  the  Baltic 
peoples,  now  at  least  strongly  Alpine)  made  itself  increasingly 
felt;  while  from  Asia  new  floods  of  Turkish-speaking  Alpines  and 
Palae-Alpines  poured  into  and  through  the  Russian  steppes.  To- 
day, although  no  striking  shifts  of  population  have  taken  place 
in  Europe  for  centuries,  the  Alpine  type  seems  to  be  more  or  less 
strongly  the  dominant  one  throughout  all  but  the  western  pe- 
riphery of  the  continent. 

In  attempting  to  account  for  the  progressive  brachycepha- 
lization  of  Europe,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  no  large  movements 
of  population  had  occurred  there  for  nearly  a thousand  years,  it 
was  suggested  that  this  change  might  have  been  brought  about 
partly  as  the  result  of  an  insensible  and  unrecognized  slow  pene- 
tration of  the  dolichocephalic  areas  by  the  brachycephalic  peo- 
ples of  the  Highlands  and  eastern  Europe.  But  here  and  in  the 
world  at  large,  where  we  have  found  the  process  to  be  very  wide- 
spread, another  still  more  insidious  and  imperceptible  influence 
may  perhaps  be  at  work.  For,  although  we  have  as  yet  no  clear 
evidence  that  when  two  distinct  types  are  blended  any  simple 
Mendelian  laws  are  in  force,  there  are  some  indications  in  the 
recent  work  of  Frets1  that,  when  brachycephalic  and  dolicho- 
cephalic elements  are  blended,  it  is  the  former  rather  more  than 
the  latter  which  tend  to  reappear  in  the  offspring.  The  data  are 
still  too  incomplete  and  too  limited  to  establish  this  even  for  the 
single  European  group;  much  less  have  the  causes  for  this  ap- 

1 Frets,  1921. 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


513 


parent  greater  persistence  of  brachycephalic  types  been  found. 
But  in  view  of  the  evidence  already  available,  we  must  admit  the 
possibility  that  the  brachycephalic  types,  and  especially  the  Al- 
pine, have  some  biological  advantage  over  the  dolichocephalic 
forms,  which  they  thus  would  tend,  in  the  long  run,  to  dominate. 

Just  as  they  were  the  last  to  arrive  in  force  in  the  west,  so 
they  were  the  latest  comers  in  the  East.  Not  much,  if  any,  I 
believe,  before  the  Bronze  Age  did  they  reach  out  across  the 
plateaus  to  the  eastern  borderlands,  where  then  they  would 
appear  to  have  repeated  the  history  of  their  expansion  in  Eu- 
rope. For,  although  the  identification  is  still  in  the  highest  de- 
gree tentative,  it  is  not  improbable  that  in  the  expansion  of  the 
Chinese  people,  beginning  so  far  as  we  know  in  the  third  or 
perhaps  only  in  the  early  part  of  the  second  millennium  B.C., 
we  may  see  something  of  the  last  phase  of  the  penetration  of 
eastern  Asia  by  the  Alpines.  As  in  Europe,  the  expansion  was 
slow  but  sure,  and  here  more  than  there  associated  directly 
with  a definite  culture  type.  The  success  was  more  rapid  here, 
perhaps  because  of  the  fact  that,  in  the  main,  the  contest  was 
with  the  Palae-Alpine  peoples,  the  Caspian  and  Mediterranean 
factors  here  being  of  course  far  smaller  than  in  Europe,  where 
they  were  once  largely  in  the  majority. 

The  great  stream  of  Alpine  peoples  which  found  its  way  into 
America  was  again  faced  by  the  same  fact — the  land  was  occu- 
pied. Yet  pressing  southward  through  the  open  Plains  the  new- 
comers seem  to  have  won  their  way,  how  slowly  or  rapidly  we 
have  as  yet  no  means  of  knowing;  thrusting  aside  to  east  and 
west,  absorbing  or  pushing  ahead  of  them,  the  less  capable  Palae- 
Alpine  folk  who  stood  in  their  way,  and  so  on  through  the  nar- 
row isthmus  and  along  the  Cordillera  toward  the  south.  In  the 
New  World,  as  in  the  Old,  the  peoples  of  this  type  have  displayed 
striking  ability,  and  to  them  seems  to  be  attributable  most  of 
the  higher  achievements  of  the  aboriginal  American  peoples. 
Without  their  influence  the  mainly  Palae-Alpine  Shoshonean 
tribes  of  the  basin  area  exhibit  few  evidences  of  cultural  ad- 
vance, but  with  strong  admixture  of  Alpine  elements  we  have 


514 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


the  development  of  the  great  Middle  American  civilization,  and 
the  less  advanced,  but  still  striking  cultures  of  the  Cliff-Dwelling 
and  Pueblo  peoples  of  the  Southwest.  In  South  America  again, 
it  was  among  peoples  primarily  of  Alpine  type  that  most  of  the 
higher  cultural  developments  of  Peru  took  place,  the  coastal 
tribes  as  well  as  the  Inca  being  of  this  type. 

In  the  eastern  Asiatic  borderlands  we  have  seen  that  the 
peoples  of  Alpine  type  drove  southward  at  a relatively  recent 
date,  and  passed  on  out  into  the  Pacific.  Once  again,  but  at  the 
very  dawn  of  history,  peoples  of  the  same  type  turned  their  faces 
southward  from  the  plateau  and  with  far-reaching  effect.  For 
there  is  reason  to  think  that  the  Sumerians,  who  were  the  founders 
of  the  great  civilization  of  Mesopotamia,  belonged  to  this  type, 
and  came  down  from  the  Iranian  Plateau  into  the  Tigris-Eu- 
phrates  valley,  whence  they,  or  peoples  affiliated  with  them,  pene- 
trated into  southern  Arabia,  and  thence  in  small  numbers  into 
the  valley  of  the  Nile,  into  which  at  its  mouth  others  of  their 
kin  from  Anatolia  had  come  by  way  of  the  Syrian  uplands  in 
earliest  Dynastic  times.  Lastly,  we  may  note  that  it  was  pos- 
sibly another  branch  of  the  peoples  of  Alpine  type  who,  from  the 
Iranian  Plateau,  pressed  southward  along  the  western  coasts  of 
India,  leavening  the  mass  of  Proto- Australoids  and  Proto-Ne- 
groids, and  leading  to  the  development  of  the  early  Dravidian 
culture,  of  whose  beginnings  and  history  we  know  as  yet  so  little. 

If,  in  the  history  of  the  race  as  a whole,  the  Mediterranean 
and  Caspian  peoples  have  played  a great  part,  that  of  the  Al- 
pines seems  hardly  less  impressive;  and  there  is  not  a little  reason 
to  believe  that  only  where  these  types  have  met  and  mingled 
have  the  highest  achievements  been  attained.  Perhaps  the  idea 
is  fanciful,  certainly  many,  many  other  factors  are  likewise  con- 
cerned, yet  one  may  point  to  various  cases  in  history  which  seem 
to  bear  it  out.  Thus1' 'Babylonian  civilization  grew  out  of  the 
blending  of  the  supposedly  Alpine  Sumerian  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean-Caspian  Semitic  peoples  who  seem  long  to  have  been 
in  occupation  of  the  Mesopotamian  plains;  in  Greece,  before  the 
florescence  of  Hellenic  culture,  the  earlier  Mediterranean  popu- 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


515 


lation  was  reinforced  by  the  immigration  of  the  probably  Alpine 
Dorians;  Rome  rose  to  greatness  only  after  the  older  Mediter- 
ranean-Caspian  people  of  Latium  had  been  half  dominated  by 
Alpines  coming  southward  from  the  valley  of  the  Po  and  the 
region  where  the  older  Etruscan  culture  had  its  centre.  In  the 
East  Chinese  civilization  had  its  rise  in  an  area  where  strong 
Caspian  elements  were  absorbed  by  the  incoming  Alpine  folk; 
lastly,  the  marvellous  development  of  modern  European  civiliza- 
tion has  occurred  in  that  region  in  which  Alpine,  Mediterranean, 
and  Caspian  have  been  more  completely  and  evenly  fused  than 
elsewhere  in  the  world.  '/is  it  perhaps  more  than  mere  coinci- 
dence that  the  reawakening  of  culture  in  Europe  after  the  Dark 
Ages  began  at  a time  when,  after  a period  of  centuries  during 
which  wide  shif tings  of  peoples  had  occurred,  the  new  fusion  of 
the  elements  had  been  begun?  Is  it  mere  chance  that  it  was  in 
the  north  of  Italy,  in  Tuscany  and  the  valley  of  the  Po,  where 
the  influence  of  the  Caspian-Mediterranean  immigrants  was 
strongest,  that  the  Renaissance  began;  that  in  Germany  it  was 
in  the  south  where  the  Baltic  peoples  had  in  large  numbers  blended 
with  the  older  Alpine  and  Palas-Alpines,  rather  than  in  the  north 
where  such  amalgamation  was  less  clear,  that  the  revival  of 
culture  had  its  start;  that  many  of  the  forerunners  and  leaders 
of  the  Reformation,  such  as  Huss,  Luther,  Zwingli,  Calvin,  all 
came  from  regions  where  the  fusion  of  types  must  have  been 
vigorously  going  on?  The  complexity  of  the  causes  underlying 
all  such  great  movements  are,  it  need  hardly  be  said,  very  great, 
yet  I cannot  but  feel  that,  among  the  many  potent  factors  which 
have  determined  or  directed  the  rise  of  modern  European  civili- 
zation, this  one  of  the  fusion  of  Alpine  with  Mediterranean-Cas- 
pian  elements  has  an  important  place.  That  the  contact  of  two 
different  peoples  often  produced  a stimulating  effect  upon  cul- 
ture has  of  course  often  been  noted;  the  point  which  I would 
make  here  is  that  this  stimulation  seems  to  be  at  its  maximum 
when  the  peoples  belong  to  the  Alpine  and  to  the  Caspian  or 
Mediterranean  types.  In  the  years  before  the  war,  Teutonic 
scholars  were  proving,  to  their  own  satisfaction,  that  most  of 


516 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


the  great  names  in  the  history  of  the  European  and  Mediter- 
ranean world  were  those  of  men  of  Nordic  race,  and  even  Christ 
himself  was  claimed  by  some  of  the  more  daring  as  of  “ Germanic  ” 
blood.  To  no  one  race  or  type,  however,  can  the  palm  be  thus 
arrogantly  assigned,  rather  to  the  product  of  the  blending  of 
those  types  which  seem  of  all  the  most  gifted — the  Mediter- 
ranean-Caspian  and  the  Alpine. 

In  the  history  of  mankind  there  have  been,  from  earliest 
times,  many  places,  many  occasions  when  amalgamations  between 
two  or  more  of  the  great  fundamental  types  have  occurred;  and 
from  these  blendings,  I am  tempted  to  believe,  have  arisen  again 
and  again  the  cultures  or  civilizations  which  mark  the  progress 
of  the  race.  From  the  fusions  between  types  less  dowered  have 
come  the  feebler  cultures;  from  those  of  types  with  larger,  more 
richly  endowed  brains  have  come  greater  achievements;  from 
those  of  the  Alpine  and  Mediterranean  types,  whose  brains  in  size 
surpass  all  the  rest,  have  grown  the  greatest  of  them  all. 

On  a previous  page  I said  that  the  conquest  and  settlement 
of  the  New  World  by  peoples  from  western  Europe  was  an  event 
of  very  great  significance  in  the  history  of  mankind.  It  was  mo- 
mentous from  the  standpoint  of  the  history  of  the  race,  because 
in  America,  and  later  also  in  Australasia,  there  was  thus  opened 
to  the  complexly  blended,  most  highly  dowered  representatives 
of  the  three  most  able  types,  who  in  the  narrow  confines  of  Eu- 
rope were  rapidly  becoming  cramped  for  room,  literally  a New 
World  in  which,  but  for  the  negligible  opposition  of  the  aboriginal 
occupants,  they  might  be  free,  as  never  before,  to  achieve  the 
fullest  fusion.  If  we  regard  from  this  angle  the  history  of  the 
colonization  and  occupation  of  temperate  North  America,  we  see 
that  never  before  have  Alpine,  Mediterranean,  and  Caspian  folk 
been  mingled  upon  such  a gigantic  scale,  or  with  so  much  of 
great  achievement  behind  them,  with  the  limitless  opportunities 
and  untouched  resources  of  a whole  continent  to  call  out  their 
best  endeavors.  From  our  retrospect  may  we  not  in  this  see  a 
prospect  of  a still  nobler  growth  of  all  that  makes  for  the  best  in 
man? 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


517 


It  is  feared  by  some  that  in  this  new  “melting-pot”  the  dis- 
crete elements  are  failing  to  fuse;  that  segregation  rather  than 
assimilation  is  taking  place.  Such  fears  come,  I believe,  from 
taking  the  short  instead  of  the  long  view  of  human  history;  from 
the  failure  to  realize  sufficiently  that  any  such  process  of  assimi- 
lation must  be  slow.  If  nature  counts  her  time  in  the  making 
of  new  varieties  and  species  by  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands 
of  years,  why  should  we  expect  a vast  fusion  of  this  sort  to  be 
accomplished  within  a few  generations?  Two  thousand  years 
perhaps  elapsed,  from  the  time  when  the  Alpine  peoples  began 
to  blend  with  the  older  Mediterranean  folk  of  Italy,  before  the 
composite  population  on  the  Tiber  made  the  name  of  Rome  feared 
and  respected  throughout  the  Mediterranean  world  and  beyond; 
and  many  centuries  of  fusion  were  required  after  the  period  of 
the  Volkerwanderung  before  some  of  its  results  became  appar- 
ent in  the  Renaissance.  The  process  of  assimilation  is  doubtless, 
for  many  reasons,  more  rapid  to-day  than  it  was  once,  yet  even 
so  we  can  hardly  hope  to  observe  much  progress  within  the  space 
of  a single  life. 

Two  probable  dangers  there  are,  however,  which  we  should 
do  well  to  ponder  and  strive  to  avert  so  far  as  it  is  in  our  power, 
here  in  America  and  in  the  newer  New  World  of  Australasia.  The 
interaction  and  assimilation  of  two  different  types  require,  it 
may  be  assumed,  a certain  quiet  and  lack  of  interference.  If 
after  the  juxtaposition  or  interpenetration  of  the  peoples  has 
occurred,  new  increments  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  constituents 
continue  on  a large  scale,  the  fusion  is  delayed,  the  adjustments 
being  made  continually  upset,  the  conscious  or  unconscious  rival- 
ries upon  which  in  a measure  the  results  may  depend  disturbed. 
After  the  end  of  the  Bronze  Age  with  its  far-reaching  mingling 
of  peoples,  a long  period  of  relative  quiet  seems  to  have  ensued, 
preliminary  to  the  great  developments  beginning  in  the  Iron 
Age;  since  the  period  of  the  Volkerwanderung  no  great  move- 
ments of  population  in  western  Europe  have  occurred.  So  in 
these  new  worlds  into  which  the  Old  World  has  poured  unstint- 
ingly  of  its  best  and  bravest,  an  unrestricted  immigration,  which 


518 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


should  admit  year  by  year  enormous  numbers  of  newcomers, 
must  tend,  as  it  were,  by  the  addition  of  great  masses  of  cold  in- 
gredients, to  lower  in  the  “ melting-pot  ” the  temperature  which 
is  necessary  to  fusion. 

The  other  danger,  and  undoubtedly  the  greater,  is  lest  the 
quality  of  the  alloy  to  be  produced  be  weakened  by  the  inclusion 
of  other  than  the  best  ingredients.  That  there  is  a difference  be- 
tween the  fundamental  human  types  in  quality,  in  intellectual 
capacity,  in  moral  fibre,  in  all  that  makes  or  has  made  any  peo- 
ple great,  I believe  to  be  true,  despite  what  advocates  of  the  uni- 
formity of  man  may  say.  It  is  no  answer  to  the  charge  that  peo- 
ples of  certain  racial  types  have  never  unaided  made  their  mark 
in  history,  to  say  that  an  unfavorable  environment  or  stress  of 
circumstances  has  prevented  the  great  achievements  of  which 
they  are  theoretically  capable.  The  mere  fact  that  in  all  the 
thousands  of  years  of  recorded,  and  the  tens  of  thousands  of  un- 
recorded history  they  have  not  risen  superior  to  their  environ- 
ment, fought  and  battled  their  way  out  of  it  and  into  a better 
one — this  fact  alone  is  proof,  to  my  mind,  that  they  are  less 
dowered  with  those  qualities,  the  possession  of  which  peoples  of 
other  types  have  proved,  by  doing  again  and  again  what  the 
weaker  peoples  have  failed  to  do. 

In  the  past  the  great  minglings  and  fusions  of  peoples  took 
place  largely  either  involuntarily  and  suddenly  as  the  result  of 
invasions  and  conquests,  or  almost  imperceptibly,  by  a process 
of  slow  advance  or  infiltration.  To-day  in  America  or  Aus- 
tralasia, wherever  immigration  on  any  large  scale  is  taking  place, 
the  conditions  are  quite  different,  and  conscious  regulation  of 
the  process  is  possible.  Does  not  the  whole  racial  history  of  man 
which  we  have  perhaps  too  rashly  been  trying  to  envisage  here, 
point  to  the  opportunity,  I had  almost  said  the  duty,  of  those 
peoples  in  whose  hands  lies  the  direction  of  the  latest  and  incom- 
parably the  greatest  experiment  in  racial  fusion,  of  seeing  that 
its  outcome  shall  exceed  those  of  all  the  past?  And  this  can 
only  be  done  by  conscious  selection,  selection  both  as  to  the  types 
themselves  and  as  to  the  quality  of  the  type.  Although,  in  the 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


519 


light  of  history,  some  types  and  their  combinations  into  races 
stand  out  as  evidently  superior  to  others,  this  is  not  to  deny  that 
excellences  are  present  among  all.  That  neither  the  Proto-Aus- 
traloid nor  Proto-Negroid  peoples  by  themselves  have  ever  at- 
tained to  greatness  does  not  mean  that  they  have  not  contributed 
anything  to  the  progress  of  the  human  race.  The  elements  of 
both,  which  seem  to  have  been  incorporated  into  the  complex 
of  the  Baltic  peoples,  or  in  larger  measure  into  that  of  the  popu- 
lation of  northern  India,  doubtless  brought  qualities  the  value 
of  which  has  been  considerable,  if  difficult  to  analyze  and  ap- 
praise. That  the  Palae-Alpines  by  themselves  seem  never  to 
have  reached  a plane  comparable  with  that  of  the  Mediterranean 
or  Alpine  peoples  is  not  to  deny  that  the  strong  admixture  of 
the  type  in  the  central  European  population,  or  that  of  China, 
has  added  elements  of  very  great  value  to  the  peoples  so  derived. 
Yet  to  make  sure  that  from  this  newest,  most  tremendous  fusion, 
the  most  perfect  product  shall  result,  can  it  be  denied  that  we 
should  seek  to  compound  it  mainly  from  the  best  ? 

And  not  only  the  best  so  far  as  race  is  concerned,  but  best 
in  individual  quality  within  the  racial  group,  for  that  within 
the  group  there  is  a difference  in  quality  is  obvious.  In  the  past, 
when  racial  mixture  was  so  often  brought  about  through  invasion 
or  conquest,  a certain  rough  selection  was  exercised  in  this  re- 
spect, in  that  in  the  arbitrament  of  war  the  weaklings  were  to 
some  extent  eliminated;  if  the  fusion  were  the  result  of  more 
peaceable  migration,  it  was  the  bolder  and  hardier  and  abler  spir- 
its who  dared  to  cross  the  ranges,  the  deserts,  or  the  seas  in  search 
of  new  homes.  To-day  this  more  or  less  automatic  process  of 
selection  exists  but  little,  if  at  all;  the  strong  and  the  weak,  the 
healthy  and  the  diseased,  the  genius  and  the  moron  may  alike 
be  transported  in  their  thousands  from  one  end  of  the  world  to 
the  other.  The  diseased,  the  obviously  defective  can  of  course 
be  in  large  measure  detected,  and  may  wisely  be  debarred,  but 
how  to  the  great  remainder  can  something  of  that  selection  be 
applied  which  dangers  and  difficulties  once  afforded?  Some 
tests  may  doubtless  be  of  value,  but  it  seems  doubtful  if  any  man- 


520 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


made  substitute  can  fully  compensate  for  the  kind  of  natural 
selection  which  for  uncounted  ages  has  controlled  in  this  respect 
the  development  of  mankind. 

Something  has  been  said  of  late  as  to  the  fact  that  the  peoples 
of  “Nordic”  race,  to  whom  in  quite  Teutonic  fashion  all  possible 
excellences  are  ascribed,  are  dwindling  and  losing  in  competition 
with  the  other  peoples  of  Europe;  and  also  in  regard  to  the  peril 
in  which  the  white  races,  i.  e.,  the  western  European  peoples 
of  blended  Alpine,  Mediterranean,  and  Caspian  type,  stand  in 
the  face  of  a great  rising  of  the  darker  folk  (derived  from  Proto- 
Australoid  and  Proto-Negroid  sources),  and  the  Asiatic  Alpines 
and  Palae-Alpines,  against  their  dominion.  So  far  as  regards 
the  danger  that  the  darker  peoples  may  rise  to  take  from  the 
white  races  the  dominion  which  they  hold,  I cannot  feel  any 
fear.  Without  the  qualities  which  large  admixture  of  Mediter- 
ranean, Caspian,  or  Alpine  factors  alone  seem  able  to  give,  such 
an  attempt  could  only,  it  seems  to  me,  end  in  failure,  whether 
the  revolt  were  on  an  economic  or  any  other  basis.  Where  the 
“white”  factors  are  actually  in  the  majority  or  nearly  so  the 
issue  might  be  more  in  doubt,  but  of  such  peoples  there  are  too 
few  seriously  to  menace  the  position  of  those  who  now  stand  in 
the  lead.  In  the  case  of  the  “yellow”  and  “light-brown”  peoples, 
who,  if  our  analysis  is  correct,  are,  despite  their  color,  derived  from 
the  same  great  fundamental  types  as  the  peoples  of  Europe,  the 
danger  is  far  greater.  In  them  lie  latent  many  of  the  qualities 
and  abilities  which  have  made  European  civilization  what  it  is 
— not  all,  however,  nor  in  so  full  a measure  perhaps,  yet  enough, 
in  the  event  of  their  full  development,  to  force  upon  the  peoples 
now  and  for  so  long  dominant  the  most  terrible  struggle  for  su- 
premacy they  have  ever  had. 

That  the  “Nordic”  race,  the  result  of  the  long  blending  in  the 
Baltic  lands  of  the  remnants  of  the  older  Palaeolithic  folk  with 
the  Caspian  and  Mediterranean  peoples  during  Neolithic  times, 
is  gradually  passing  from  the  stage  would  seem,  from  the  evi- 
dence, to  be  only  too  true.  But  their  passing  is  not  a recent  mat- 
ter— it  has  been  going  on  for  thousands  of  years,  and  was  already 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


521 


far  advanced  before  the  discovery  of  America.  They  have 
played  their  part,  and  it  has  been  a great  part,  in  the  world’s  his- 
tory. As  a “race,”  as  a complex  of  just  these  particular  factors, 
in  just  this  combination,  it  seems  doomed  in  the  end  to  be  ab- 
sorbed in  the  wider  complex  which  has  been  forming  ever  since 
the  Alpine  peoples  made  their  appearance  in  Europe.  It  is  pass- 
ing, just  as  the  purer  Mediterranean  peoples  are  and  for  long  have 
been  passing,  in  the  sense  of  sinking  into  the  greater  racial  en- 
tity which  has  been  so  long  in  process  of  growth,  and  in  which  the 
Alpine  type  seems  destined  to  play  perhaps  the  leading  part. 

For  the  long  survey  of  man’s  racial  history  which  we  have 
been  making  leads  us,  if  I have  read  that  history  aright,  to  the 
conclusion  that  this  is  one  wherein  he  has  passed  from  an  early 
condition  of  relative  heterogeneity,  through  a long  period  of  strug- 
gle in  which  gradually  the  better-dowered  forms  rose  to  domi- 
nance, to  the  present,  in  which  the  less  able  peoples  have  been 
practically  exterminated  by  those  who  have  risen  to  the  top,  and 
in  which  the  world’s  population  has  become  more  homogeneous 
through  this  very  elimination  and  through  the  long  amalgamation 
of  the  originally  discrete  types.  In  this  struggle  with  its  resultant 
blendings  up  to  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America,  the  peoples 
primarily  of  Alpine  type  (though  often  blended  with  a consider- 
able Palae- Alpine  factor)  seem  on  the  whole  to  have  won.  For 
they  dominated  already  the  larger  part  of  Europe,  by  far  the 
larger  portion  of  Asia  and  the  two  Americas,  as  well  as  consider- 
able areas  in  the  Pacific.  The  opening  of  the  New  World  brought 
in  new  complications.  It  meant  much  to  the  peoples  of  Medi- 
terranean and  Caspian  type,  as  from  their  position  on  the  west- 
ern margin  of  Europe  the  chance  came  first  to  them  to  seize 
for  themselves  this  great  new  territory.  This  they  did,  wresting 
it  easily  from  the  aboriginal  occupants,  who,  although  mainly  of 
Alpine  origin,  were  far  less  advanced  than  their  remote  kinsmen 
of  the  Old  World.  For  three  centuries  or  more  the  colonization 
and  settlement  of  temperate  North  America  by  peoples  from  the 
west  of  Europe  went  on.  And,  although  the  French  were  in  the 
main  of  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  type,  the  growing  predominance 


522 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


of  English-speaking  settlers  gave  to  the  Mediterranean-Caspian 
group  a clear  majority,  which  was  added  to  by  the  large  Scan- 
dinavian element  and  slightly  by  those  of  German  speech.  Then 
rather  suddenly,  toward  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
conditions  changed;  the  influx  of  these  types  dwindled,  while 
Alpine  peoples  from  the  east  and  southeast  of  Europe  began  to 
pour  into  the  continent  in  an  ever-increasing  flood.  As  ages 
before  in  Europe,  the  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  folk  were  first 
in  the  field  and  the  Alpine  peoples  came  late,  so  here  again  his- 
tory seems  to  repeat  itself,  and  the  age-long  struggle  waged  in 
Europe  between  these  two  great  contending  forces  bids  fair  to 
be  transplanted  to  a wider  stage. 

This  struggle  is  not,  however,  a conscious  one — it  is  masked 
and  hidden  under  many  disguises.  For,  although  in  earlier  times 
the  contest  was  more  openly  between  groups  of  different  racial 
types,  to-day  it  is  but  occasionally  to  be  glimpsed  in  the  con- 
flicts between  those  smaller  groups  in  which,  united  by  common 
traditions,  common  language,  common  culture,  and  common  as- 
pirations, individuals  of  diverse  races  have  been  welded  together 
to  form  nations.  While  the  actual  process  of  amalgamation  of 
types  and  races  now  takes  place  mainly  within  the  nation,  the  fact 
that  the  discrete  elements  are  thus  strongly  bound  together  by 
national  ties,  enormously  complicates  and  greatly  obscures  the 
struggle  between  the  two  great  opposing  groups  of  the  Alpines 
and  Palae-Alpines  and  the  Mediterranean  and  Caspian  peoples, 
in  which  it  seems  that  the  process  of  racial  development  has  cul- 
minated not  only  in  Europe  but  in  the  world  at  large.  The  un- 
conscious opposition  of  these  two  groups  is,  as  I say,  masked  by 
the  facts  of  nationality,  yet  in  the  great  conflict  from  which  the 
world,  and  Europe  in  particular,  has  scarcely  emerged  the  two 
gigantic  adversaries  loom  dimly  behind  the  scenes,  for  although, 
entangled  in  the  net  of  nationality,  peoples  of  both  parties  were 
fighting  on  each  side,  it  still  remains  true  that  the  Teutonic 
allies  were  preponderantly  of  the  Alpine  and  Palae-Alpine  types, 
while  against  them  at  the  last  were  arrayed  the  majority  of  all 
the  Caspian-Mediterranean  peoples  of  the  world. 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 


523 


From  the  struggle  between  the  two  great  types  of  peoples 
the  tropical  heart  of  Africa  has  been  largely  immune.  The  strug- 
gles between  them  have  been  and  probably  will  be  determined 
elsewhere,  and  in  these,  to  them  forbidden,  regions  the  ancient 
Negroid  peoples  must  long  continue  to  survive.  But  for  the  rest 
of  the  world,  if  the  theory  here  proposed  be  true,  that  the  racial 
history  of  man  is  in  final  analysis  that  of  the  struggles  for  dom- 
inance among  the  descendents  of  differently  dowered  types,  to- 
gether with  their  gradual  blending  into  an  ever  more  homogene- 
ous form,  the  answer  to  the  riddle  of  the  future  would  seem  to 
be  written  in  the  past.  The  more  primitive  types  and  races, 
those  least  endowed,  must  tend  to  pass  from  the  stage  and  merge 
into  the  complex  of  their  victors,  and  among  these  amalgamation 
and  absorption  must  continue  to  reduce  more  and  more  the 
remnants  of  the  original  types,  until  in  the  end,  out  of  many 
types,  through  a multitude  of  races,  may  come  one  race,  which 
will  be  the  consummation  of  them  all. 


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INDEX 


A 

Abor,  261 
Abruzzi,  150 

Abyssinia,  179,  180,  181,  185,  190,  204, 
208,  226 
Acholi,  212 

Afghanistan,  241,  242,  266,  306,  308, 
309.  3ii 
Afghans,  31 1 
Africa,  179-237 

Central,  221-226;  East,  208-2x3; 
Northern,  198-203;  Northeastern, 
204-207;  South,  214-220;  West,  232- 
237 

Ahom,  261 

Aimara,  450,  464,  466 
Ainu,  249,  250,  283,  287,  288,  289-290, 
292,  410 
Aisori,  317 
Akamba,  211,  213 
Akikuyu,  21 1 
Akkas,  229 
Akoi,  226 
Alans,  37,  155 
Alas,  354 

Alaska,  407,  423,  425,  427,  438 
Albanians,  95,  96 
Alemani,  36,  84,  452 
Aleutian  Islands,  407,  438 
Aleuts,  439 
Alfures,  346,  360 
Algeria,  169,  198-201,  232 
Algonkian  tribes,  402,  403,  407,  408-411, 
412,  423,  427,  429,  430,  433,  436,  448, 
475.  478,  481,  498,  507 
Alikaluf,  12,  19,  448,  454-455 
Anatolia,  172,  173,  175,  251,  253,  307, 
312-321,  325,  514 
Anau,  329 

Andaman  Islands,  244,  269,  272-274, 
492 

Andamanese,  270,  272-273,  275,  491 
Andarobo,  210 
Angles,  36,  67,  68,  69 
Anglo-Saxons,  61,  67,  69,  70 
Angola,  221 
Angoni,  209,  216 


Annam,  269,  275-278,  348 
Annamese,  276,  277 
Ansaries,  253 

Antilles,  405,  446,  450,  451,  470 
Apache,  404,  423,  439 
Apulia,  147,  151 
Aquitaine,  46,  49,  55,  57 
Arabia,  168,  172,  173,  175,  185,  188,  190, 
191,  193,  195,  196,  206,  207,  212,  241, 
242,  243,  245,  246,  248,  249,  250,  251, 
252,  253,  254-255,  308,  476,  484,  486, 
494.  497,  509.  514 

Arabs,  154,  155,  163,  168,  175,  188,  190, 
200,  202,  206,  212,  213,  234,  235,  236, 
254-255,  308,  312,  506 
Aragon,  41 

Arapaho,  427,  429-430 
Araucanian  tribes,  447,  467,  496 
Arawak  tribes,  447,  451,  459,  468,  469, 
470,  471 
Archangel,  135 

Ardennes,  30,  46,  51,  59,  60,  61,  62,  100 

Argentina,  446,  457,  467 

Arikara,  427,  429,  431 

Arizona,  402,  403,  415,  416,  418,  420 

Arkansas,  433 

Armenia,  173,  175,  242,  248,  306,  312, 
315,  321,  322,  325 

Armenians,  173,  316,  318,  319,  452,  496 
Aru  Islands,  343,  352,  361 
Ashanti,  181,  233 

Ashkenazim,  163,  165-167,  168,  171,  174 
Asia,  241-339 

Asia  Minor,  32,  40,  92,  93,  138,  143,  172, 
174,  195,  241,  242,  246,  248,  306,  312- 
321.495 

Assam,  249,  260-261,  265,  271,  272,  275 
Assyria,  252,  510 
Astrachan,  138 
Asturia,  155 

Athabascan  tribes,  403,  423,  426,  427, 

438-439 

Aueto,  450,  460,  461 
Australia,  343,  345,  346,  364,  372-376, 
377,  475,  476,  477,  47»,  481 
Austria,  43,  59,  98-112,  120,  122 
Auvergne,  56,  160 


572 


INDEX 


Avars,  37,  89 
Aveyron,  43,  50,  160 
Azandi,  229 

Azerbaidjan  Tatars,  250,  309,  325,  326, 

33i 

Aztecs,  441 

B 

Babar  Islands,  361 
Babongo,  226 

Babylonia,  248,  251-252,  255,  267,  307, 
5io,  5H 
Badakshan,  331 

Baden,  41,  104,  108,  109,  112,  120,  174 
Baganda,  208,  210-211,  212,  213,  224, 
235 

Bagirmi,  231 
Baining,  370-37B  491 
Bakalri,  450,  460,  461,  471 
Bakhtiari,  309 
Balija  caste,  263 

Balkan  peninsula,  30,  36,  37,  41,  42,  43, 
92-97,  1 18,  142,  144,  150,  163,  175, 
242,  487,  497 
Baloch,  311-312 

Baltic,  29,  30,  31,  32,  33,  36,  37,  39,  41, 
42,  43,  50,  52,  54,  61,  75,  76,  87,  89, 
90,  98,  100,  101,  102,  103,  105,  106, 
113,  1 15,  118,  120,  128,  130,  151,  155, 
246,  409,  478,  479,  480,  483,  484,  492, 
499,  506,  510,  512,  515,  5i9,  520  , 
Baltis,  303 
Baltistan,  305 
Baluba,  223 

Baluchistan,  242,  266,  306,  309,  311-312 

Bambara,  236 

Bambuto,  211,  213,  222 

Banda,  229 

Bannocks,  421 

Bantu,  182,  185,  19T,  208,  209-21X,  215, 
216,  217,  218,  219,  221,  224,  225,  226, 
227,  229,  233,  235,  481 
Barotse,  208 
Bas  Bretons,  56 
Bashkirs,  42,  114,  137,  138 
Basket-makers,  402,  403,  416-418,  419, 
422 

Basoko,  223,  224 
Basonge,  225 
Basongo,  223,  224 

Basques,  152,  154,  158-161,  498,  499 
Batwa,  21 1,  213 
Battak  (Palawan),  358 
Battak  (Sumatra),  354 
Bavaria,  60,  98,  99,  102,  104,  105,  107, 
108,  109,  no,  112,  120,  512 


Bedouin,  175,  193,  196,  253-254,  255 
Behar,  259,  260 
Beira  Alta,  40,  156 
Bektash,  317 

Belgium,  28,  29,  30,  32,  33,  38,  42,  51, 
59-62,  66,  75,  98,  103,  109,  1 12,  135, 
154,  160,  488,  498 
Bengal,  259,  260,  265,  266,  267 
Beni-Amer,  183,  190,  203,  204-206,  207 
Beothuks,  409 

Berbers,  154,  155,  169,  170,  186,  200-201, 

202,  203 

Bertawi,  228-229 
Besisi,  274 
Betchuana,  208 
Betsileo,  214 
Bhuinar  caste,  259 
Bhutan,  304 
Bhutanis,  260 
Bilqula,  430 
Bisayans,  358,  359 

Bismarck  Archipelago,  343,  345,  364, 
371,  372 

Black  Tatars,  295-296 
Blackfoot,  429-430,  431,  439 
Blandas,  274 
Bobai,  224 

Bohemia,  28,  29,  30,  32,  36,  39,  44,  99, 
100,  101,  104,  105,  106,  108,  110,  117, 
118,  119,  120,  122,  123,  125 
Bolgari,  37,  90,  118-119,  I2°,  I23 
Bolivia,  445,  450,  451,  467,  468 
Bongawi,  228-229 
Bonin  Islands,  388,  390 
Borlawa,  231 

Borneo,  343,  346,  347,  349,  352,  356-357, 
358,  363,  476 
Bororo,  450,  460,  461 
Bosnia,  88,  93,  96 
Botel  Tobago,  359 
Botocudos,  458,  459 
Bougainville  Island,  370 
Brahmin  caste,  259,  260 
Brahui,  266,  311-312 
Brazil,  394,  446,  449,  454,  457,  468,  470 
Brazilian  Highlands,  447,  448,  450,  453, 
458,  459-461,  462,  463,  464,  468,  478 
Bretons,  55 

British  Columbia,  402,  403,.  415,  416, 
424,  426,  430,  431,  438 
British  Isles,  30,  31,  33,  34,  38,  39,  41, 
5C  54,  55,  59,  60,  63-73,  75,  I4I,  483, 
486,  492,  512 

Brittany,  29,  31,  38,  41,  46,  48,  49,  51, 
52,  55,  56,  57,  58,  65,  141,  160 
Buduma,  231 


INDEX 


573 


Bugis,  359-36o 

Bulgaria,  95,  96 

Bulgars.  See  Bolgari 

Burgundians,  36,  53,  55,  84 

Burgundy,  53,  58 

Buriats,  294-296,  336 

Burma,  260,  265,  269-272,  508 

Burmese,  269,  270-272,  274,  490,  496 

Burungi,  181,  209 

Burusheski,  303 

Bushman,  181,  182,  186,  205,  208,  209, 
212,  214-219,  226,  489,  494,  507 

C 

Caddo,  427,  429 
Caddoan  tribes,  412,  423,  427 
Cahokia  mounds,  435 
Calabria,  150,  151 
Calchaquis,  467-468 

California,  401,  415,  420,  421,  439,  440, 
477,  487 

Cambodia,  269,  270,  276-278,  508 
Cameroon,  182,  226,  229,  232-233,  481, 
491 

Campagna,  144,  150 
Canaanites,  173 
Canara,  262,  266 
Canaris,  462 

Canary  Islands,  152,  180,  181,  187,  191, 
199,  201-202,  205,  498 
Caraya,  449,  450,  460 
Carib  tribes,  447,  450, 459,  469, 470-471 
Carinthia,  81,  89,  95,  125 
Caroline  Islands,  343,  346,  388,  389,  390 
Carthaginians,  148,  199-200 
Castile,  155,  156 
Catalonia,  41,  152 

Caucasus,  40,  114,  138,  173,  174,  175, 
322-326 

Cayapo,  460,  461 
Celebes,  352,  359-360 
Celts,  53,  54,  56,  63,  66,  72,  155,  157, 
159 

Central  America,  438 
Central  European  Highlands,  31,  33,  34, 
40,  41,  46,  51,  53,  59,  60,  81-87,  90,  98, 
103,  no,  135,  246,  488,  490,  492,  498 
Ceylon,  264,  265,  267,  475 
Chaco,  468 

Chad,  Lake,  182,  203,  221,  227,  229-232, 
233,  234,  235,  237 
Chakma,  261 
Cham,  276,  278 
Chamar  caste,  259 
Charga  Oasis,  202-203 


Charklik,  299 

Chatham  Islands,  378,  381-383,  386, 
485.  487 
Chauia,  201 
Chechens,  323,  324 
Chekiang,  280-281,  348,  353 
Cheremiss,  113,  127,  131,  135,  136 
Cherentes,  460 
Chernigov,  116,  119,  122 
Cherokee,  434,  437 
Cherson,  115,  121,  122,  124 
Cheyennes,  427,  429-430 
Chibchan  tribes,  447,  465 
Chickasaw,  434 
Chihuahua,  415 
Chilcotin,  438 

Chile,  448,  454,  461-462,  463,  464,  467 
Chili,  280 

China,  241,  242,  243,  245,  247,  248,  269, 
272,  276,  277,  278,  279-284,  285,  286, 
293.  30i,  302,  305.  347.  483,  484.  493. 
497.  499.  509.  519 

Chinese,  279-284,  285,  299,  300,  301, 
349.  353,  362,  496,  508,  513,  515 
Chinese  Turkestan,  242,  247,  284,  293, 
298-301,  302 
Chins,  269,  270-272,  275 
Chippewa.  See  Ojibwa 
Chiriguano,  468 
Chitrali,  332 
Choctaw,  434,  435 
Chota  Nagpore,  258-259,  260,  262 
Chuckchi,  333-335,  498 
Chuds,  130 
Chuhra  caste,  258 
Chumash,  421 
Chuvantzy,  333 
Chuvash,  114,  135,  136,  138 
Circassians,  323,  324 
Coahuila  caves,  403,  417,  419,  441 
Colombia,  446,  464,  465 
Colorado,  420 
Comanche,  427 

Congo,  179,  182,  183,  184,  185,  208,  210, 
213,  221,  223-226,  231,  233,  234,  446, 
491,  492,  494 

Cook  group,  346,  350,  377,  380,  381,  384, 
386 

Coorgs,  263 
Copts,  198 
Coras,  441 
Cornwall,  71,  72 
Correze,  58 
Corsica,  29,  39,  41 
Cossacks,  127 
Creeks,  434 


574 


INDEX 


Crees,  438 

Crete,  94,  96-97,  141,  193,  195,  319,  486, 
5i° 

Crimea,  114,  122 

Croatia,  92,  100 

Crow,  430-431 

Cyprus,  195,  256,  314 

Czecho-Slovakia,  98-112 

Czechs,  98-112,  490,  491,  492,  496 

D 

Dafla,  261 
Daghestan,  166 
Dahomey,  190,  233-234 
Dakotas.  See  Sioux 
Dalmatia,  95,  96 
Danes,  36,  68 
Dards,  303 
Dar-Fertit,  228 
Darfur,  228 
Dauphiny,  56,  58,  81 
Deccan,  257 

Delawares.  See  Lenape 
Denmark,  30,  32,  41,  52,  53,  61,  67,  68, 
69,  74-80,  101,  107,  1 15 
D’Entrecasteaux  archipelago,  370 
Devonshire,  72 
Digawi,  228 

Dinka,  213,  227-228,  231 
Dobrudja,  176 

Dordogne,  40,  41,  46,  47,  49,  57,  58 
Dorians,  35,  93,  94,  515 
Dosadh  caste,  260 

Dravidians,  262-263,  265,  266,  277,  514 
Dr6me,  49 
Duala,  233 

Dungans,  330-33 1,  332 
Dusun,  357 

Dzungaria,  242,  243,  247,  248,  293,  294, 
296.  297,  301,  329,  330 

E 

Easter  Island,  344,  346,  350,  377,  378, 
380,  381,  384,  385,  386,  478,  481 
Eastern  Turkestan.  See  Chinese  Turke- 
stan 

Ecuador,  448,  449,  461, 462, 463,  464,  465 
Egypt,  149,  169,  170,  179,  181,  183,  187, 
188,  189,  192-198,  203,  205,  245,  251, 
452,  477,  481,  485,  486,  487,  510 
Egypt,  Lower,  185,  186,  188,  194,  195, 
196,  197 

Egypt,  Upper,  185,  186,  188,  189,  192, 
193.  194.  195.  196.  197.  198,  206,  207 


Ekoi,  233 

Ellice  group,  364,  383,  385 
Engano,  354~355 

England,  28,  29,  30,  33,  36,  38,  40,  41, 
44.  63-73,  477,  485,  487.  503 
Ephthalites,  308 
Eries,  411-412 
Eritrea,  207 

Eskimos,  n,  19,  334-335.  402,  407-408, 
409,  412,  414,  415,  416,  438,  439,  483, 
484,  485,  486,  487,  498,  510,  51 1 
Esthonia,  113 
Esths,  1 13,  120,  129,  130 
Etruria,  144 

Etruscans,  142-144,  146,  515 
Europe,  27-161 

F 

Fang,  226 

Farther  India,  241,  242,  243,  244,  249, 
250,  269-278.  See  also  Indo-China 
Fayum,  198 
Fellahin,  Syrian,  253 
Fertitawi,  228,  233 
Fezzan,  203 

Fiji,  343,  346,  348,  364,  370,  452 
Finland,  41,  113,  114,  123,  130-133,  134, 
135 

Finmarken,  133,  135 

Finnic  peoples,  37,  40,  120,  123,  127,  129, 

130-133 

Finns,  42,  74,  76,  113,  1x6,  118,  119,  121, 
124,  125,  130-133,  134,  479,  498 
Flanders,  62 
Flores,  361 

Florida,  405,  434,  446,  447,  450 
Formosa,  292,  343,  346,  347,  348,  352, 
359 

France,  28,  29,  30,  31,  32,  33,  34,  36,  38, 
39,  40,  41,  42,  44,  46-59,  63,  64,  65,  66, 
75,  82,  83,  84,  88,  99,  100,  102,  103, 
109,  112,  135,  139,  152,  153,  154,  155, 
156,  157,  158,  159,  160,  161,  182,  189, 
478,  488,  490,  496,  498,  499,  512 
Franche-Compt6,  53 
Franks,  36,  38,  53,  55,  60,  61,  62 
Friesland,  61,  62,  66,  78,  107 
Fukien,  280-281,  348,  353 
Fula,  186,  191,  227,  232,  234,  235,  237 
Furawi,  228-229,  231 

G 

Gaboon,  225-226,  231*  233,  481 
Gajo,  354 


INDEX 


575 


Galchas,  330-332 
Galibis,  469,  471 

Galicia,  127,  165;  (Spain),  152,  155 
Galla  caste,  263 

Gallas,  183,  204-206,  211,  213,  485 
Garo,  261 

Gauls,  53,  146,  316 
Georgians,  323,  324 
Gepidae,  36,  88 
Gerba,  183,  201 

Germany,  28,  29,  33,  36,  37,  38,  44,  47, 
53,  59,  67,  68,  74,  76,  79,  87,  90,  98- 
112,  1 17,  118,  125,  128,  162,  165,  477, 
481,  485,  486,  498,  515 
Ges  tribes,  447,  458,  459-460,  461 
Ghebres.  See  Guebres 
Gibraltar,  187 

Gilbert  group,  343,  346,  385,  388,  389 

Gilyaks,  288-289 

Gipsies,  175-176 

Goajiro,  469,  470 

Gold  Coast,  233 

Goldi,  336 

Gomera,  187,  202 

Goths,  31,  36,  55,  88,  91,  115,  119,  122, 
124,  130,  137,  146,  148,  151,  155 
Gotland,  76 
Granada,  153,  154,  160 
Grand  Canary,  181,  202 
Greece,  35,  36,  93-96,  308,  510,  514 
Greeks,  115,  137,  148,  316,  319 
Greenland,  400,  406,  407-408,  484 
Grodno,  127,  128,  129 
Guahibas,  463 

Guanches,  187,  201-202,  488 

Guarani,  468 

Guayaki,  468 

Guaycuru,  468 

Guebres,  310 

Guiana,  446,  468,  469 

Guinea  coast,  226,  232-234 

Gujar  caste,  258 

Gujratis,  263 

Gurungs,  260 

Gurzoof  Tatars,  137 

H 

Hadendoa,  189,  204-206  207 

HaWjemi,  309 

Hafiramaut,  190,  213 

Haida,  423-426 

Hannover,  no,  nr,  112 

Harrison  Lakes,  426 

Hausa,  191,  227,  232,  234,  235-236,  237 

Haute  Vienne,  57,  58 


Hawaii,  378-379 

Hawaiian  group,  344,  346,  348,  350,  377, 
378-380,  383,  384,  385,  386,  387,  481, 
485,  490,  496 
Hazaras,  312 

Hebrews,  163,  173,  175,  251,  253 
Hebrides,  71 
Hedjaz,  254,  255 
Herrero,  208,  209 
Hertfordshire,  71 
Herulae,  36 
Herzegovina,  96 
Hesse,  100,  104,  in 
Hidatsa,  429-430,  431 
Hierro,  181,  187,  202 
Hindus,  248,  255,  258-260,  267,  307,  308, 
3i  1.  330,  505 

Hittites,  172,  173,  253,  314,  318 
Hiungnu,  282,  296,  297,  300,  329 
Holland,  59-62,  98.  See  also  Nether- 
lands 

Honan,  281 

“Horn”  of  Africa,  179,  185,  204-207, 
208 

Hottentots,  181,  182,  186,  208,  212,  214- 
219,  226 
Hovas,  214 
Huasteca,  440,  441 
Huguenots,  44 
Huichols,  441 
Huilliche,  467 
Hunan,  281 

Hungary,  30,  32,  37,  87-92,  93,  94,  98, 
101,  118,  120,  122,  176 
Huns,  37,  55,  89,  90,  268,  297,  308 
Hupa,  439 
Hupeh,  281 
Hurons,  411,  4x2,  431 
Hyksos,  196,  510 

I 

Iban, 356 

Iberian  Peninsula,  29,  31,  32,  39,  41, 
139,  150,  151-161,  486 
Iberians,  146 
Ifugao,  359 
Igorot,  358,  359 
Illinois,  435,  437 
Illyria,  146 
Ilocano,  358 
Ilokos,  359 
Ilongot,  359 
Incas,  466,  467,  514 

India,  175,  241,  242,  243,  244,  245,  248, 
249,  250,  255,  256-269,  275,  277,  288, 


576 


INDEX 


302,  303,  304,  305,  307,  31 1,  312,  330, 
356,  475,  476,  478,  483,  484,  485,  486, 
487,  494,  505,  509,  514,  519 
Indo-China,  269,  275-278,  284,  288,  289, 
305,  347,  362,  389,  493,  494 
Indonesia,  214,  242,  244,  245,  247,  275, 
343,  345,  346,  347,  348,  352-363,  364, 
368,  377,  389,  390,  478,  490,  497,  509 
Ionian  Islands,  93,  96 
Ipurina,  468 

Iranian  plateau,  245,  250,  252,  253,  255, 
256,  267,  306-312,  327,  331,  484,  497, 
509,  514 
Iranians,  124 

Ireland,  29,  31,  40,  41,  63-73 
Iroquoian  tribes,  407,  411-414,  433,  436, 
438 

Iroquois,  402,403,411,  412,417,418,  428, 

435,  436,  437,  448,  455,  475,  477,  478, 
481,  507 
Is6re,  49 
Issansu,  209 
Istria,  42,  95 

Italy,  11,29,31,33,34,35,  36,39,  40,41, 
42,  43,  47,  53,  84,  88,  92,  94,  96,  112, 
139-151,  161,  193,  486,  512,  515,  517 
Ituri,  21 1 

J 

Jaederen,  43,  77,  78,  80 
Jagga,  182,  209 
Jakun, 274,  275 

Japan,  241,  242,  243,  245,  247,  250,  283, 
286,  287-292,  346,  347,  388,  390,  410, 
483,  484,  490,  492,  499,  509 
Japanese,  285,  286,  290-292 
Jarai,  276 

Java,  214,  343,  344,  347,  349,  352,  355- 
356,  358,  360,  361,  476 
Javanese,  355~356 

Jews,  149,  162-175,  254,  255,  318;  (Am- 
sterdam), 163;  (Caucasian),  166,  167, 
1 71 , 173,  174;  (Central  Asiatic),  166, 

167,  171,  173;  (Constantinople),  163, 

164,  168,  171;  (Egyptian),  169;  (Eng- 
lish), 163,  164;  (Galician),  165;  (Ger- 
man), 165,  167;  (Gruzinian),  166; 
(Italian),  163,  164;  (Jerusalem),  163, 
164,  169,  1 71 ; (Karaite),  165,  166,  169, 
1 7 1 ; (Mesopotamian),  168,  171; 

(Mountain),  166, 167;  (North  African), 
164,  168,  169-171;  (Persian),  166,  167, 

168,  1 7 1 , 173;  (Polish),  128,  165;  (Por- 
tuguese), 163;  (Russian),  165,  167; 
(Salonika),  163;  (Spanish),  163,  164, 


170,  171;  (Syrian),  166,  167,  168,  171; 
(Yemenite),  168-169,  171 
Jutes,  69 

Jutland,  76,  78,  79,  80 
K 

Kababish,  183,  202,  203 
Kabyles,  201 
Kachetians,  324 
Kachins,  269,  270-272 
Kadir,  262 

Kaffirs,  181,  208,  209,  214,  216,  217,  218 

Kafirs,  31 1 

Kagoro,  232,  233 

Kai,  365,  366 

Kajji,  233 

Kalabit,  357 

Kalicz,  127 

Kalkas,  294 

Kalmucks,  114,  138,  294-296 
Kamchadal,  333-335,  336 
Kamchatka,  241,  243,  287,  333,  335 
Kanikar,  262 
Kansas,  427 

Kansu,  279,  284,  300,  301 
Kanuri,  231 
Kapu  caste,  263 
Kara-Kirgiz,  298,  330 
Karaite  Jews.  See  Jews  (Karaite) 
Karamojo,  212 
Karels,  130,  131,  132 
Karens,  269,  271,  274,  275 
Kaseri,  210-2x1,  212 
Kashmir,  302,  303,  305 
Kassites,  248,  255,  267,  307,  308,  309, 
315,  330,  510 
Kauai,  378-379,  387 
Kayan,  356-357 
Kayasth  caste,  259,  260 
Kazan,  113,  114,  116,  117,  118,  120,  123, 
135 

Kei  Islands,  352,  361 
Kenyahs,  356 
Khanxbus,  260 
Kha,s,  276 

Khasi,  261,  265,  272 
Khazars,  37,  38,  174 
Khmer,  269,  277 
Kielce,  117 

Kiev,  114,  116,  1 1 7,  118,  119,  121,  i?2 
Kimmerians,  315,  317,  318,  321 
Kiowa,  423,  427-428,  429 
Kirgiz,  114,  137,  166,  294,  296,  298,  299, 
325,  330-33C  506 
Kirgiz-Kazak.  See  Kirgiz 


INDEX 


577 


Kiushu,  286,  291,  292 
Kizilbash,  317 
Klemantans,  356,  357 
Kohita,  261 
Koiri  caste,  259 
Kola  peninsula,  130,  133,  134 
Kootenays,  424,  425 
Kordofan,  228 

Korea,  241,  242,  243,  247,  250,  285-287, 
291,  292,  490 
Korwas,  259 
Koryak,  333-335.  336 
Kostroma,  1x6,  117,  118,  120,  123,  127, 
128 

Kotoko,  231 
Kovno,  129 
Kru,  233 
Kubus,  354 
Kuki,  261 
Kulu,  303 
Kumans,  37 
Kumbra,  229-230 
Kurawi,  228 

Kurds,  309,  310,  316,  318,  319-321 

Kurile  Islands,  241,  287,  288,  289 

Kurland,  129 

Kurmi  caste,  260 

Kursk,  1 16,  126 

Kurumba,  262 

Kvanes,  132 

Kwangtung,  280-281 

Kwapa,  427 

L 

Labrador,  407-408 
Ladakh, 305 
Ladakhis,  303 

Lagoa  Santa,  448,  449,  458,  459,  460 
Lahoul,  303 

Lake  Dwellers,  81,  82,  83,  86 
Lamut,  336 
Languedoc,  41,  56 
Laos,  269,  275,  276,  277,  278 
Lapland,  78,  79 

Lapps,  42,  74,  76,  77,  78,  80,  1 13,  130, 
133-135,  136,  137,  339.  488,  507 
Larzac,  50 
Latins,  33,  142,  143 
Latium,  140,  143 
Leinster,  71 

Lenape,  402,  407,  410-41 1,  417,  435,  436, 
437,  438 
Leon,  155,  156 
Lepchas,  260 
Lesghians,  323,  324 
Letts,  1 13,  129 


Leukas,  93,  96 
Liberia,  182,  233,  236 
Libya,  179,  183,  186,  187,  20 2 
Limbus,  260 
Limousine,  41 
Lithuanians,  113,  129 
Livland,  114,  118,  120,  129,  130 
Livs,  1 13,  120,  130 
Lolos,  279,  281 

Lombards,  34,  36,  88,  146,  148,  151 

Lombardy,  140 

Lomza,  127 

Loplik,  298,  300,  301 

Lorraine,  53 

Loucheux,  439 

Louisiana,  433 

Lower  California,  401,  415,  417,  418 

Loyalty  Islands,  370 

Lozere,  50 

Luris,  309,  310 

Luzon,  346,  352,  357,  358 

Lycia,  173,  314,  319 

M 

Macassars,  359-360 
Macedonia,  35,  95,  96,  308 
Madagascar,  214,  349 
Madurese,  355-356 
Mafulu,  365 
Magh,  261 
Magyars,  37,  90-91 
Maidu,  421,  422 
Maine,  402,  409,  410,  41 1 
Malagasy,  214 

Malay  Peninsula,  244,  249,  250,  269,  272- 
275,  353.  354,  363,  478,  492 
Malays,  247,  272,  274,  348,  354,  355,  362, 
497  ( M enangkabau) , 275,  349,  353, 
358,  363 
Malecite,  408 
Males,  259 
Malinke,  236 
Mai  Paharias,  259 

Manchuria,  241,  242,  243,  285-287,  293, 
297 

Manchus,  279,  285-286,  333,  336 
Mandan,  427,  429 
Mandaya,  358,  359 

Mandingo,  191,  227,  233,  234,  235,  236- 

237 

Mangbettu,  229 
Mangyan,  358 
Mani,  94 
Manipuri,  261 
Manitoba,  432 


578 


INDEX 


Manobo,  358,  359 
Manyema,  210-211,  225 
Maori,  381-383,  384,  387,  4§5 
Maratthas,  263 

Marianne  group,  343,  388,  390 
Marne,  49 

Marquesas  group,  346,  350,  377,  380, 
384,  385,  386 
Marshall  group,  343,  388 
Masai,  190,  204-205,  211,  212,  213 
Massachusetts,  409-410,  41 1 
Mastuji,  332 
Matacco,  468 
Mauretania,  182,  203 
Maya,  441 

Mayan  tribes,  405,  440,  441 
Mecklenburg,  32,  67,  74,  75,  76,  100-101, 
106-107,  no,  1 15 
Medes,  267,  307-309,  326,  330 
Mehinaku,  460 

Melanesia,  278,  343,  345,  346,  349,  364- 
372,  377,  380,  383,  384,  385,  390,  475, 
478,  491,  492 

Mentawei  Islands,  354-355 
Mesopotamia,  168,  171,  172,  242,  251- 
253-  267,  306,  310,  3x3,  321,  330,  514 
Metouali,  253 
Meuse,  49,  59,  60 

Mexico,  403,  415,  417,  438,  440-442,  507 

Mezgliani,  309 

Miaotse,  279 

Michigan,  437 

Michoacan,  403 

Micmacs,  408-409 

Micronesia,  343,  345,  346,  347,  349,  357, 
364,  37i,  379,  383,  385,  386,  387,  388- 
390,  483 
Mikir,  261 
Minahassa,  360 
Mindanao,  349,  352,  357,  358 
Mingrelians,  324,  325 
Minho,  157 
Miri,  261 
Missisauga,  429 
Missouri,  433 
Missouris,  427 
Mitanni,  315 
Mohawks,  413 
Mois,  269,  276 
Moldavia,  92 
Moluccas,  343,  346,  360 
Mongolia,  241,  242,  246,  247,  248,  249, 
279,  282,  284,  285,  293-298,  302,  306, 
329,  490,  493 

Mongols,  121,  129,  135,  136,  137,  138, 
247,  249,  268,  285,  294-298,  299,  302, 


308,  312,  316,  331,  488,  489,  490,  491, 
496,  498,  499,  508 
Mons,  269 
Montagnais,  429 
Montana,  428 
Moravia,  44,  104, 

Mordvins,  1 13,  127,  135,  136 
Moriori,  381-382,  487 
Morocco,  154,  169,  170,  179,  183,  198- 
201 

Moros,  358-359, 

Morvan,  41,  42,  43,  56,  160,  488,  490, 
496,  499 

Moscow,  36,  1 16,  1 19,  123,  126 

Mountain  Jews,  166 

Mountain  Tatars,  137 

Munchi,  233 

Mundas,  259 

Mundong,  231 

Munster,  71 

Murcia,  156,  158 

Murua,  491.  See  also  Woodlark  (Is.) 
Muruts,  357 

Muskogean  tribes,  403,  412,  433,  434, 
435,  437,  438 

N 

Nagas,  261 
Nahane,  438 

Nahuan  tribes,  440-441,  442 
Nahuqua,  460,  461,  471 
Nairs,  262,  264,  267 
Nandi,  212,  213 

Navaho,  404,  421-422,  423,  439 
Nebraska,  432 

Negritos,  184,  222,  244,  245,  263,  272, 
273,  275,  278,  284,  288,  345,  354,  357- 
358,  359,  360,  361,  367,  37i,  375,  379, 
490,  491,  492,  493-495 
Negroes,  184,  400,  401,  409,  449,  477, 
480 

Negroes,  Congo,  223-226,  233,  234;  Nil- 
otic, 203,  206,  2 10-2 13,  227-228,  229, 
230,  231;  “true,”  227,  232-234 
Neo-Siberian  tribes,  333,  335-339 
Nepal,  260 

Netherlands,  34,  38,  59-62,  63,  66,  512. 

See  also  Holland 
Neutrals,  411-412 

Nevada,  402,  415,  416,  4x8,  420,  421 
New  Britain,  344,  370-371,  477,  481 
New  Caledonia,  343,  348,  364,  37°“372 
New  England,  409-410,  411,  412,  417, 
428,  435 

Newfoundland,  408 

New  Guinea,  343,  345,  346,  348,  349, 


INDEX 


579 


352,  360,  361,  362,  364,  365-369.  37i, 
373.  375.  377,  481,  492 
New  Hannover,  370 
New  Hebrides,  343,  345,  348,  364,  369, 
370-372 

New  Ireland,  370,  372,  385 
New  Mexico,  420 
New  South  Wales,  374 
New  York,  41 1 

New  Zealand,  343,  346,  347,  350,  377, 
378,  381-383,  384,  385,  386,  387.  481, 
483,  485 

Niam-Niam,  229 
Nias,  355 

Nicobar  Islands,  269,  272-275 

Nigeria,  226,  232,  233 

Nippon,  287,  289,  291,  292 

Nishegorod,  116,  117,  120,  123,  127 

Njemps,  204-205,  212 

Nogai  Tatars,  137,  325 

Norbotten,  133 

Normandy,  55 

Normans,  148 

North  America,  393-442 

North  Dakota,  432 

Norway,  41,  42,  43,  62,  66,  74-80,  130, 

133,  134,  135,  486 

Novgorod,  36,  116,  xi8,  126,  127,  130, 

134 

Nuba,  228-229,  233,  236 
Nubia,  183,  185,  186,  188,  189,  192-198, 
204,  206-207,  226,  232,  236,  245 
Nuer,  227-228,  236 
Nyasser,  231 

O 

Oceania,  343-390 

Ohio,  403,  411,  431,  433,  434-437,  438 
Oise,  49 

Ojibwa  (Eastern),  429;  (Western),  427- 
428,  430,  431,  438 
Okanagan,  426 
Oldenburg,  no 
Olonetz,  130,  134 
Omahas,  427 
Oman,  190,  213,  255,  308 
Ona,  448,  454-455 
Ontario,  41 1 
Oraons,  259 
Oregon,  416,  420,  421 
Orel,  128 

Orenburg,  114,  137 
Orkney  Islands,  68,  71,  72 
Orok,  336 
Orokon,  336 

Ossetes,  323,  324,  325,  326 


Ostiaks,  129,  249,  333,  337-338,  477.  498; 

(Yenesei),  334,  338 
Otomac,  463 
Otomi,  405,  440,  441 
Ottawas,  429 
Ouled  Sliman,  231 

P 

Palseo-Siberian  tribes,  333-335 
Palaung,  269,  270-271 
Palawan,  357,  358 

Palestine,  163,  168,  1 71 , 172,  173,  175, 
195,  251-253,  254,  510 
Paliyan,  262 
Palli  caste,  263 

Pamirs,  242,  247,  299,  300,  302,  303,  327, 
330,  332 
Pammari,  468 

Panama,  405,  446,  447,  450,  451 

Paniyan,  262 

Pano  tribes,  447 

Papago,  421 

Paraguay,  446,  468 

Parayan  caste,  263 

Paressi,  460 

Parsees,  310 

Parthians,  308 

Patagonia,  446,  454,  455-456,  478,  485 
Pathans,  258,  311,  312 
Paumotu  group.  See  Tuamotu 
Paviotso,  421 
Pawnee,  429,  431 
Pechenegs,  37 
Pecos,  404,  419,  422 
Pehuenche,  462 
Pelew  Islands,  343,  388 
Peloponnesus,  35,  94 
Pennsylvania,  410,  41 1 
Perak,  273,  274 
Pericue,  402,  417 
Perigord,  47 
Perm,  119,  129,  135 
Permiaks,  113,  135-136 
Persia,  166,  167,  168,  171,  173,  175,  241, 
242,  245,  246,  248,  249,  306,  307-311, 
322,  323,  325,  330 

Persians,  267,  307-311,  326,  330,  510 
Peru,  445,  450,  461,  464,  465-467,  514 
Petrograd,  126,  127 

Philippine  Islands,  286,  343,  346,  347, 
349,  352,  357-359,  363,  367,  49H  492 
Phoenicians,  189,  199-200,  252 
Phrygians,  315,  316,  317 
Piaroa,  463 

Pigmies,  2x1,  213,  216,  218,  358,  367; 


580 


INDEX 


(African),  184,  190,  191,  221-222,  223, 
224,  225,  226,  229,  230,  233,  234,  244, 
49i.  494 

Piman  tribes,  423,  431 
Pimas,  417,  421,  440,  441 
Pi-Utes,  416,  417,  418,  421 
Plains  (N.  America),  403,  404,  412,  423, 
424,  426-433,  446,  488,  493,  497,  498, 
513 

Plock,  1 1 7,  127 
Pnongs,  276 
Podolia,  128 

Poland,  44,  98,  1x3,  117.  118,  125,  127, 
128,  129,  162,  165 
Poles,  1 13,  126,  127 
Poltava,  1 14,  1 16 

Polynesia,  357,  364,  368,  372,  377-387, 
388,  389,  390 

Pommern,  100,  105,  107,  119 
Ponape,  388 
Ponca,  427-429 

Portugal,  29,  40,  41,  151-161,  187 
Portuguese,  187 
Posen,  107,  no,  119,  125,  126 
Provence,  56 

Prussia,  107,  109,  110,  112,  125,  126,  127, 
498 

Pskov,  126,  127 

Pueblo  tribes,  416,  422-423,  514 
Puelchean  tribes,  447 
Punan, 356 

Punjab,  258,  262,  264,  265,  267,  303 
Punt,  Land  of,  186,  207 

Q 

Quechua,  447,  450,  466-467 
Queensland,  373,  375 

R 

Rade,  276 
Rajput  caste,  258 
Rajputana,  258,  262,  267 
Rhode  Island,  409-410,  41 1 
Rhodesia,  180,  214,  218,  220 
Riazan,  116,  120,  123 
Riu-kiu  Islands,  287,  288,  292,  346 
Romans,  66,  67,  91,  143,  155 
Rome,  142,  143,  146,  147,  510,  512,  515, 
517 

Rotti,  361 
Ruk,  388 
Rumanians,  91 

Russia,  30,  31,  34,  36,  37,  38,  39,  40,  41, 
42,  43,  87,  90,  98,  113-138,  162,  165, 


174,  241,  246,  248,  322,  324,  327,  333, 
4°9,  478,  483,  485,  486,  487,  512 
Russians,  Great,  116,  126,  127,  128; 

(White),  127 
Ruthenians,  113,  127 

S 

Sabines,  144 
Sacse,  268 

Sahara,  154,  179,  182,  185,  186,  188,  190, 
198,  200,  202-203,  226,  231-232,  234, 
236,  237 

Sakai,  249,  269,  272-274,  275,  354 
Sakalavas,  214 

Sakhalin,  250,  283,  287,  288-289 
Salinan  tribes,  421 
Salishan  tribes,  423-426 
Samaria,  172,  254,  255 
Samaritans,  172 

Samoa,  346,  347,  349,  364,  372,  377,  383, 

384,  385 

Samoyedes,  43,  113,  129,  136,  333,  337, 

338-339,  498 

San  Clemente,  401,  416-417 
Sanduwi,  181,  209 
Sango,  229 

Santa  Catalina,  401,  416-417 
Santa  Cruz  group,  343,  345 
Santals,  259 
Sara,  229 

Saracens,  55,  148,  154,  155 
Sarawak,  357 
Sarcee,  427,  438-439 

Sardinia,  29,  31,  39,  40,  41, 140-141, 148- 
149,  150,  151,  154,  477,  485,  486,  487 
Sariqoli,  299 
Sarmatians,  116,  124 
Sarsi.  See  Sarcee 
Sarts,  330 
Savolax,  130,  131 
Savoy,  58,  81 
Saxons,  36,  55,  67-68,  69 
Scandinavia,  74-80,  xoi,  133,  134,  483, 
488 

Scandinavian  peninsula,  31,  32,  39,  40, 
42'  . 

Scandinavians,  70,  72,  73 
Schleswig,  68,  no 
Schleswig-Holstein,  110 
Scotland,  29,  34,  38,  40,  41,  43,  62,  63-73 
Scythians,  116,  124,  136,  315,  317,  318, 
321,  324,  325 
Sea  Dyaks,  356 
Seine,  46 
Seine  et  Oise,  49 
Selangor,  273 


INDEX 


581 


Semang,  269,  272-274,  275 
Senecas,  413 

Senegal,  179,  203,  232,  236 
Senegalese,  232-233 
Senoi.  See  Sakai 

Sephardim,  163-164,  165,  167,  r68,  169, 
170,  171 
Serbia,  96 

Shahaptian  tribes,  423 
Shans,  248,  269,  276 
Shansi,  279 
Shan  States,  269-272 
Shan-taloke,  271,  272 
Shantung,  280,  282,  283,  287 
Shawnee,  434 
Sheher  Bedouin,  254,  255 
Shensi,  279 

Shetland  Islands,  68,  71,  72 
Shikoku,  291 

Shilluk,  227-228,  231,  236 
Shoshonean  tribes,  402,  403,  421,  422, 
424,  427,  513 
Shoshoni,  421 
Shuswap,  426 

Siam,  249,  269,  275-277,  508 
Siamese,  250,  269,  276,  277,  278 
Siberia,  113,  241,  242,  245,  246,  248,  249, 
293.  327-329,  332-339,  483,  498,  506 
Sicily,  29,  31,  39,  41,  139,  140-141,  148, 
149,  150,  154,  189,  477,  485,  486,  487 
Sikhs,  258 
Sikkhim,  260 

Silesia,  30,  32,  100,  101,  no,  125,  127 
Sind,  258 
Singhalese,  264 
Sinteng,  261 

Siouan  tribes,  402,  404,  423,  427,  429, 

433,  438,  498 

Sioux,  413,  430-431,  433,  438 

Sisseton  Sioux,  431 

Siwah  Oasis,  189,  202,  203,  485,  487 

Skane,  75,  78,  80 

Slavonia,  95 

Slavs,  36,  37,  39, 44,  89,  90,  91 , 95,  98, 103, 
104-107,  108,  109,  112,  117,  118-126, 
127,  130,  131,  132,  134,  136,  174,  338, 
505,  512 

Smolensk,  116,  126,  128 
Society  group,  346,  350,  380,  381,  384, 
386 

Solomon  Islands,  343,  345,  348,  364,  369, 
370-37B  385 
Somaliland,  190,  204 
Somalis,  183,  204-206,  21 1,  213,  485 
Songhai,  227,  232,  235,  236 
Sonora,  415 


South  America,  445-472 
South  Australia,  374 
Soyot,  295-296 

Spain,  28,  29,  31,  36,  40, 42,  47,  50,  52,  53, 
92,  141,  146,  151-161,  163,  164,  169, 
182,  189,  193,  498,  507,  512 
Spagnuoli,  163 
Sphakiots,  94 

Strandloopers,  181,  186,  191,  215-2x9 
Styria,  81,  89,  95,  125 
Subanun,  358 

Sudan,  185,  188,  190,  191,  221,  226-232, 

234-237 

Suevi,  36,  40,  155 
Suk,  212,  213 
Sukuma,  21 1 

Sulu  archipelago,  349,  358 
Sumatra,  214,  275,  343,  346,  347,  349, 
352,  353-355,  356,  358,  363,  476 
Sumerians,  251-252,  253,  514 
Sundanese,  355“356 
Suwalki,  129 
Swahili,  190 

Sweden,  30,  32,  43,  74-80,  101,  107,  115, 
130,  132,  133,  134,  479,  485 
Switzerland,  29,  30,  32,  38,  41,  42,  43,  75, 
81-87,  103,  109,  161,  174,  488,  490, 491, 
492,  495,  496,  497,  498,  499 
Syria,  165,  166,  171,  172,  173,  188,  195, 
196,  251,  252,  253,  255,  256,  320,  321, 
514 

Szechuan,  279,  281,  284 
Szeklars,  91 

T 

Tadjiks,  309,  326,  331-332 
Tagalawi,  228-229,  233 
Tagalog,  358-359,  490,  496 
Tagbanua,  358,  359 
Takhtadjy,  173,  317 
Talaings,  269,  271 
Tambov,  135 
Tamils,  250,  263,  264,  452 
Tamoa,  225 
Tapiro,  367,  369 
Tarahumares,  417,  440,  441 
Tarascan  tribes,  403,  440,  441,  442 
Taruma,  469 

Tasmania,  343,  372,  373,  374-375,  376, 
475,  488 

Tatars,  39,  114,  121,  122,  123,  137,  247, 
296,  298,  330 
Tats,  326 
Taurida,  137 
Tavasts,  130,  131 


582 


INDEX 


Teda,  182,  186,  203,  231 

Tehuelche,  455-456 

Telei,  370 

Telenget,  295-296 

Teles,  295 

Telugus,  263 

Teneriffe,  201,  202 

Tenggerese,  355“356 

Tenimber,  361 

Tennessee,  403,  434~435 

Teruel,  40,  156 

Teton  Sioux,  431,  433 

Teutons,  72, 73,  89, 98, 103, 104, 105,  106, 

107,  117,  118,  119,  120,  123,  125,  127 
Tharu  caste,  259 
Thebaid,  203,  205,  207 
Thos,  276 
Thrace,  96 
Thracians,  315 
Thuringia,  106 

Tibbus,  182,  186,  203,  231,  232.  See 

also  Teda 

Tibet,  241,  242,  244,  247,  250,  269,  279, 

284,  293,  301,  302-305,  347,  483,  493 
Tibetans,  269,  304 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  454,  458 
Timor,  361 
Timote,  464 
Timuquana,  437 
Tipra,  261,  272 
Tlingit,  423-426 
Toala,  359-360 
Toda,  262,  264,  267,  268 
Tokea,  359~36o 
Tokhari,  300-301 
Tomuna,  360 

Tonga,  346,  347,  349,  364,  372,  377,  383, 

384,  385,  386 

Tonkawa,  403,  427-428,  429 

Tonkin,  269,  270,  275-276,  277,  283,  348 

Toradja,  360 

Totonac,  440,  441 

Toucouleurs,  232-233 

Trans-Baikal,  246,  293 

Trans-Caucasus,  318,  322 

Transvaal,  180,  219 

Transylvania,  91,  92 

Tras  os  Montes,  40,  156 

Tripoli,  198-201 

Trobriand  group,  370 

Tromso,  130,  133,  135 

Trondhjem,  42,  77,  79 

Trumai,  450,  460,  461 

Tsaidam,  284,  301,  302,  305 

Tsimshian,  423-426 

Tsonekan  tribes,  447,  455-456 


Tuamotu  group,  346,  350,  377,  380,  384, 

385,  386 

Tuaregs,  203 

Tunguses,  285,  286,  289,  296,  297,  333, 
335-336 
Tunica,  427 

Tunis,  169,  179,  189,  198-201 
Tupi,  458,  459,  460 
Tupi-Guarani  tribes,  450,  457 
Turkana,  212 

Turkestan,  Eastern.  See  Chinese  Turke- 
stan 

Turkestan,  Western,  246,  250,  297,  300, 
306,  308,  327,  329-332,  490 
Turki,  298,  299 
Turkomans,  250,  308,  330-331 
Turko-Tatars,  129,  136,  137,  249,  323, 
325,  329,  330,  333 

Turks,  95,  248,  268,  297,  308,  316-317, 
319,  496 
Turu,  1 8 1 , 209 

Tuscany,  139,  140,  142,  147,  149,  515 
Tver,  116,  119,  120,  123,  128 
Tyrol,  81,  86,  87,  150,  488,  497,  499 
Tzendals,  441 

U 

Ufa,  137 

Uganda,  209,  210,  212,  213,  226,  229, 

235 

Ugrians,  129,  136,  337-338 
Uigurs,  298,  300 

Ukraine,  116,  118,  121,  122,  123,  124, 
125,  126,  127,  165 
Ulster,  68,  73 
Ulu-Ayar,  357 

Umbria,  41,  143,  144,  147,  149 
United  Provinces  (India),  258,  259 
Uriankhai,  295-296 
Utah,  402,  415,  416,  418,  420 
Utes,  413,  416,  417,  418,  421 
Uto-Aztecan  tribes,  440 
Uzbegs,  296,  298,  300,  330-331 

V 

Valencia,  152,  158 
Vancouver  Island,  402,  415,  424 
Vandals,  36,  37,  40,  148,  155 
Vaud,  41,  42,  86 
Vedda,  264,  265 
Vei.  See  Wei 
Vellalla  caste,  263 
Venezia,  142,  146,  147,  150 
Venezuela,  446,  448,  461,  463,  464,  468, 
469,  498,  499 


INDEX 


583 


Vepses,  130 

Vesterbotten,  133 

Viatka,  119,  129,  135 

Victoria,  374 

Vilna,  129 

Vitebsk,  116,  127 

Voguls,  43,  129,  333,  337-338 

Volhynia,  43,  116,  124,  127,  128 

Vologda,  129,  135 

Votes,  130 

Votiaks,  1 13,  131,  135 

W 

Wa,  269,  270 
Wadama,  229 
Wahpeton  Sioux,  431 
VVakashan,  423-426 
Wakhi,  299 
Wales,  40,  63,  70-73 
Wallachia,  92 
Walloons,  69 
Wangatta,  223 

Wanyamwezi,  208,  210-211,  224 

Wapisiana,  469 

Warrau,  469 

Washington,  416 

Wei,  233,  236-237 

Wends,  106 

West  Australia,  374 

Westergotland,  75 

Westphalia,  106,  107,  no,  III,  112 

West  Prussia,  119 


Wisconsin,  437 
Wolof,  232-233 

Woodlark  Island,  370.  See  also  Murua 
Wurtemberg,  41,  102,  104,  105 
Wyoming,  420,  428 

Y 

Yaghan,  448,  454-455 

Yakut,  247,  248,  333,  336-337,  506 

Yamamadi,  468 

Yami,  359 

Yankton  Sioux,  431 

Yap,  388 

Yaroslav,  114,  116,  x 1 7,  119,  123,  127 
Yaruro,  463 

Yemen,  168-169,  171,  185,  186,  190,213, 
254-255 

Yezo,  283,  287,  288,  289 
Yorkshire,  33,  64,  66 
Yuchi,  437 
Yuechi,  300-301 
Yukaghir,  333-335 
Yuki,  416,  423 
Yuman  tribes,  421,  423,  431 
Yunnan,  279 

Z 

Zapotec,  440,  441 
Zotzils,  441 

Zulu,  208,  209,  214,  216,  218 
Zuni,  421 
Zyrians,  113,  135 


744 


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